ๆญคๆข็ฎๅฏๅ็
งๆณข่ญ่ช็ถญๅบ็พ็งใ่ฑ่ช็ถญๅบ็พ็งๅ็พ
้ฆฌๅฐผไบ่ช็ถญๅบ็พ็ง็ธๆๆข็ฎๆฅๆฉๅ
๏ผๅ
ถไธญ้จๅๆข็ฎๅจๅฐๆ่ช่จ็็บ้ซๅ่ณชๆข็ฎใ (2024ๅนด5ๆ19ๆฅ) |
ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ๏ผๆณข่ญ่ช๏ผKrakรณw [หkrakuf] โ[่จป 1]๏ผ้ฆๆธฏ่ฏไธบๆ ผๅๅคๅคซ๏ผๆฏๆณข่ญ็ฌฌไบๅคงๅๅธใๅฐๆณข่ญ็็ไผ๏ผไฝๆผๆณข่ญๅ้จ๏ผ็ดๆ80่ฌๅๅฑ ๆฐใ้ฐ่ฟๅ ๆ็งๅคซ-็ดๆฏๆ้็ฆ้ซๅฐ๏ผ็ถญๆฏ็ฆๆฒณ่ฒซ็ฉฟๅธๅใๅ ถๅๅฒๆๅ็งฏๆทๆทฑๅ๏ผๅปบๅๅๅฒๅฏ่ฟฝๆบฏๅฐ7ไธ็บช[2]๏ผ่ช1038ๅนด่ตทๆ็บๆณข่ญ้ฆ้ฝ๏ผ่ณ1596ๅนด้ฝๆ ผ่็นไธไธ้ท้ฝ่ฏๆฒ็บๆญข[3]๏ผไผ ็ปไธไธ็ดๆฏๆณขๅ ฐ้่ฆ็็ปๆตๆๅไธญๅฟใๅ ถ่ขซ่ชไธบๆฌงๆดฒๆ็พไธฝ็ๅๅธไนไธ๏ผๅธๅ ็่ๅๅบไบ1978ๅนด่ขซๅไธบไธ็ๆๅ้ไบงใ
| ๅ
ๆ็งๅคซ Krakรณw | |
|---|---|
| ็ธฃ็ดๅธใ็ไผ | |
| ๅ
ๆ็งๅคซ็ๅฎถ้ฆ้ฝๅธ Stoลeczne Krรณlewskie Miasto Krakรณw | |
           ๅพๅทฆๅฐๅณ๏ผไปไธๅพไธไพๅบ๏ผ่ๆฏ่ๆฎฟ ยท ็ๅ ยท ็ฆ็ถญ็พๅๅ ก็ๆ่ๅพฉ่ๅผไธญๅบญ ยท ๅพๅ
ๆๅบซๆฏไธไฟฏ็ฐๅ
ๆ็งๅคซๅคๆฏ ยท ็ฆ็ถญ็พไธปๆๅบงๅ ยท ่ไผฏๅค็ฅฟ่ไฟ็ฅฟ่ๆฎฟ ยท ๅธๆฟๅปณ้ๆจ ยท ็ดก็นๆ้คจ ยท ๆฐๅญธ้ข๏ผไบๆท้ๅคงๅญธ่กๆฟๅคงๆจ๏ผ ยท ๅฐคๅฉ็ไปยทๆฏๆฒ็ฆ่จๅบๅ้ข ยท ่็ฆ้ๅฎ่ก | |
 ๆๅน  ๅพฝ็ซ | |
| ็ถฝ่๏ผ ๆณขๅ
ฐ้
ๅ
ธ | |
| ๆ ผ่จ๏ผ Cracovia urbs celeberrima๏ผๆไธ่ฏญโๅ
ๆ็งๅคซ๏ผๅคฉไธๅๅโ๏ผ | |
  ๅ
ๆ็งๅคซ ๅจๆณข่ญ็ไฝ็ฝฎ | |
| ๅๆ ๏ผ50ยฐ03โฒ41โณN 19ยฐ56โฒ14โณE๏ปฟ / ๏ปฟ50.0614ยฐN 19.9372ยฐE | |
| ๅฝๅฎถ |  ย ๆณข่ญ |
| ็ไปฝ | ๅฐๆณขๅ ฐ็ |
| ๅปบๅธ | 1257ๅนด6ๆ5ๆฅ |
| ่กๆฟๅบๅ | 18ๅบ |
| ๆฟๅบ | ๅธ้ท-่ญฐๆๅถ |
| โขย ่กๆฟๆบๆ | ๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅธๆฟๅบ |
| โขย ๅธ้ฟ | ไบๆญทๅฑฑๅคงยท็ฑณๆ็พๆฏๅบ ๏ผPO/KO๏ผ |
| ้ข็งฏ | |
| โขย ๆป่ฎก | 326.8ๅนณๆนๅ ฌ้๏ผ126.2ๅนณๆน่ฑ้๏ผ[1] |
| โขย ้ฝๆๅ | 1,023.21ๅนณๆนๅ ฌ้๏ผ395.06ๅนณๆน่ฑ้๏ผ |
| ๆ้ซๆตทๆ | 383ๅ ฌๅฐบ๏ผ1,257่ฑๅฐบ๏ผ |
| ๆไฝๆตทๆ | 188ๅ ฌๅฐบ๏ผ617่ฑๅฐบ๏ผ |
| ไบบๅฃ๏ผ2024ๅนด[1]๏ผ | |
| โขย ๅ จๅธ | 806,201ไบบ |
| โขย ๅฏๅบฆ | 2,467ไบบ/ๅนณๆนๅ ฌ้๏ผ6,389ไบบ/ๅนณๆน่ฑ้๏ผ |
| โขย ้ฝๆๅ | 1,725,894 |
| ๆถๅบ | CET๏ผUTC+1๏ผ |
| โขย ๅคๆถๅถ | CEST๏ผUTC+2๏ผ |
| ้ฎๆฟ็ผ็ | 30-001 ่ณ 31-999 |
| ้ป่ฉฑๅ่ | +48 12 |
| ่ป่ผ่็ | KRใKK |
| ็ถฒ็ซ | www |
| ๅฎๆนๅ็งฐ | ๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅๅฒไธญๅฟ |
| ้กๅ | ๆๅ้ไบง |
| ๆจๆบ | iv |
| ่ฏๅฎๆถ้ด | 1978ๅนด ๏ผ็ฌฌไบๆฌกไผ่ฎฎ๏ผ |
| ๅ่็ทจ็ขผ | 29 |
| ๅๅบ | ๆฌงๆดฒๅๅ็พๅฐๅบ |
ๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅไธบ็ฆ็ปดๅฐๅฑฑไธ็ไธๅบงๅฐๆๅบ๏ผๅ้ๆธๅด่ตทใๆ นๆฎไธญไธ็บชๅฎ่พพๅขๆฏๅไบบๆๅๆๆฌฃยทไผๆฌยท้ ๅบๅธ๏ผIbrahim Ibn Yakoub๏ผ็่ฎฐ่ฝฝ๏ผๆฉๅจ985ๅนด๏ผ่ฟ้ๅทฒ็ปๆไธบไธญๆฌง็น่ฃ็่ดธๆไธญๅฟ[2]๏ผไธฆๆพๆ5ๅไธ็ด็ๆ้ๆ็บๆณข่ญ้ฆ้ฝใ1795ๅนด็ฌฌไธๆฌก็ๅๆณขๅ ฐๅ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅฝๅฑๅฅฅๅฐๅฉๅธๅฝ็ปๆฒปใ้็1918ๅนดๆณขๅ ฐ็ฌฌไบๅ ฑๅๅฝ็ๆ็ซ๏ผไปฅๅ20ไธ็บชๅคงๅญฆๅๅ ถไปๆๅๅบๆ็ๅปบ่ฎพ็ญๆฝฎ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅๆฌก็กฎ็ซไบๅ ถๅฝๅฎถไธป่ฆๆๅไธญๅฟ็ๅฐไฝใ1939ๅนด็ฌฌไบๆฌกไธ็ๅคงๆๅ จ้ข็ๅ๏ผๆณขๅ ฐๆฒฆ้ท๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆไธบ็บณ็ฒนๅพทๅฝๆฎๆฐๆฟๆๆณขๅ ฐๆป็ฃๅบ็็ปๆฒปไธญๅฟ๏ผๅไธญ็็นๅคชไบบ่ขซ็บณ็ฒนๅฝๅฑ้ๅ ฅ้้ฝ๏ผไนๅ็ปๅคงๅคๆฐ่ขซ้ๅพ้่ฟ็ๅฅฅๆฏๅจ่พใๆฎ็ฆ่ๅคซ็ญ้ไธญ่ฅ้ไฝๅฑ ๆ[4]ใ็ถ่๏ผ่ฟๅบงๅๅธๅพไปฅๅนธๅ ไบๆไบ็ ดๅใ
1978ๅนด๏ผ่ๅๅฝๆ็งๆ็ป็ปๆนๅๅฐๅ ๆ็งๅคซ่ๅๅบ๏ผไปฅใๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆญทๅฒไธญๅฟใๅ็พฉ๏ผใไปฅๅ้่ฟ็็ปดๅฉๅฅๅก็็ฟๅๅ ฅ็ฌฌไธๆนไธ็้ไบงๅๅฝ[5][6]ใ2000ๅนด๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ฒ้ธ็บๆญๆดฒๆๅไน้ฝใ2013ๅนด๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ่ท่ๅๅฝๆ็งๆ็ป็ปๆนๅๅ ฅ้ๆๅญฆไนๅ[7]ใ2016ๅนด๏ผๅคฉไธปๆๆ็็ฌฌ31ๅฑไธ็้ๅนดๆฅๅจๅ ๆ็งๅคซ่่ก[8]ใ2023ๅนดๆญๆดฒ้ๅๆๅๅจๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅๅฐๆณขๅ ฐๅฐๅบไธพ่ก[9]ใ
ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ่ขซๅ จ็ๅๅไธ็ๅๅธ็ ็ฉถ็ฝ็ปไธบโ้ซๅบฆ่ช่ถณโ็ญ็บง็ๅ จ็ๅๅธ[10]ใๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆฅๆๅฅ็นๅผใๆ่บๅคๅ ดใๅทดๆดๅ ็ญๅค็ง้ฃๆ ผ็ๅปบ็ญ๏ผ็ฆ็ปดๅฐไธปๆๅบงๅ ใ็ฆ็ถญ็พๅๅ กใๅฃๆฏๅฃๆฎฟใๅฃไผฏๅค็ฆๅฃไฟ็ฆๅฃๆฎฟใไธญๅคฎ้ๅธๅนฟๅบ็ญๅๆฏๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅปบ็ญ่บๆฏ็ๆฐๅบไปฃ่กจ[11]ใไธ็ๆๅค่้ซ็ญๆ่ฒๆบๆไนไธ็ไบๆท้ๅคงๅญธไนไฝไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซใๆญคๅค๏ผ่ฏฅๅธ่ฟๆฅๆๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅๅฎถๅ็ฉ้คจใๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆญๅง้ขใๅฐคๅฉ็ไปยทๆฏๆฒ็ฆ่จๅบๅ้ขใๅฝๅฎถๆฏๅก้ๅง้ข็ญ้่ฆๆๅๆบๆใ
่ฏๆบ
็ผ่พไผ ็ปไธ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๅ็งฐๆฅๆบไบไผ ่ฏดไธญ็ถญๆฏ็ฆไบบ็้ฆ้ขใๅๅธๅปบ็ซ่ ๅ ๆๅ ใๅจๆณขๅ ฐ่ฏญไธญ๏ผKrakรณwๆฏKrakไธ่ฏ็ๅคไฝๅฑๆ ผๅฝขๅผ๏ผๆไธบโๅ ๆๅ ็ๅๅธโใไฝๅๅฒๅญฆ็ๅฏน่ฟไธๅ็งฐ็ๆฅๆบไบ่ฎฎๅพๅคง๏ผๅญๅจๅค็งไธๅ็็่ฎบ๏ผไธๅฐๆชๅฝขๆๅ ฑ่ฏใๆณขๅ ฐๆ็ฎๅฏนๅ ๆๅ ๆๆฉ็่ฎฐ่ฝฝๅงไบ1190ๅนด๏ผไฝ่ฏฅ่่ฝๆฉๅจ7ไธ็บชๅฐฑๅทฒ็ปๅญๅจ๏ผๅฝๆถ่ฟไธๅฐๅบ็ไธป่ฆๅฑ ๆฐๆฏ็ถญๆฏ็ฆไบบใ[2]่ฟๅบงๅๅธ็ๅๅญๅฏ่ฝๆบ่ชๆณขๅ ฐ่ฏญkrukไธ่ฏ๏ผๆไธบโไน้ธฆโใ[12][13]
ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๆญฃๅผๅ็งฐไธบโStoลeczne Krรณlewskie Miasto Krakรณwโ๏ผๆไธบโๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๅฎถ้ฆ้ฝๅธโใ[14]
ๅๅฒ
็ผ่พๅๅฑๆฉๆ
็ผ่พ
ย ๆณข่ฅฟ็ฑณไบๅ
ฌๅฝ (955โ965)
ย ๆณขๅ
ฐ็ๅฝ (965โ1138)
ย ๅ
ๆ็งๅคซๅ
ฌๅฝ (1138โ1320)
ย ๆณขๅ
ฐ็ๅฝ (1320โ1385)
ย ๆณขๅ
ฐ็ๅฝ (1320โ1569)
ย ย ๆณข่ญ็ซ้ถๅฎ่ฏ้ฆ (1569โ1795)
ย ย ๅๅธๆฏๅ กๅไธปๅฝๆณข่ฅฟ็ฑณไบ็ๅฝ (1795โ1804)
ย ย ๅฅฅๅฐๅฉๅธๅๆณข่ฅฟ็ฑณไบ็ๅฝ (1804โ1809)
ย ๅๆฒๅ
ฌๅฝ (1809โ1815)
ย ๅ
ๆ็งๅคซ่ช็ฑๅธ (1815โ1846)
ย ย ๅฅฅๅฐๅฉๅธๅๅ
ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅ
ฌๅฝ (1846โ1867)
ย ย ๅฅฅๅๅธๅฝๅ
ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅ
ฌๅฝ (1867โ1918)
ย ๆณขๅ
ฐ็ฌฌไบๅ
ฑๅๅฝ (1918โ1939)
ย ็บณ็ฒนๅพทๅฝๆณขๅ
ฐๆป็ฃๅบ (1939โ1945)
ย ๆณขๅ
ฐไบบๆฐๅ
ฑๅๅฝ (1945โ1989)
ย ย ๆณข่ญ (1989โ่ณไป)ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๅๅฒๅฏไปฅ่ฟฝๆบฏๅฐ็ฆ็ปดๅฐๅฑฑไธ็็ณๅจๆถไปฃๅฎๅฑ ็นใ[15]ๅจไผ ่ฏดไธญ๏ผ็ถญๆฏ็ฆไบบ้ฆ้ขๅ ๆๅ ๅจ็ฆ็ปดๅฐๅทจ้พๆ ๆฏ็ๆด็ฉดไนไธๅปบ็ซไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅใๅ ณไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆๆฉ็ไนฆ้ข่ฎฐ่ฝฝๅฏไปฅ่ฟฝๆบฏ่ณๅ ฌๅ 965ๅนด๏ผๅจ่ฟไปฝๆ็ฎ่ตๆไธญ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆฏไธไธช้่ฆ็ๅไธไธญๅฟ๏ผ่ตทๅไฝไบๆฉๆ็ปดไบ่พๅข๏ผ955ๅนดๆถ่ขซๆณข่ฅฟ็ฑณไบ็ๆณขๅๆฏๆๅคซไธไธๅพๆใ[16]ๆณขๅ ฐ็ฎ้ ๆฏ็น็ๆ็ๆข ไป็งไธไธไบๅ ถ็ปๆฒปๆซๆไปๆณข่ฅฟ็ฑณไบไบบๆไธญๅคบๅไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซ๏ผๅฐๅ ถ็บณๅ ฅ็ฎ้ ๆฏ็น็ๆ็้ขๅฐใ[17]
10ไธ็บชๆซ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅทฒ่ฝฌๅไธบ่ฟไธๅฐๅบ้ฆ่ฆ็่ดธๆไธญๅฟใ[18]1038ๅนด๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆไธบๆณขๅ ฐ็ๅฝ็้ฆ้ฝใ[2]ๆญคๅ๏ผ็ฆ็ปดๅฐๅๅ ก็ญ็ ๅถๅปบ็ญไปฅๅๅฃไบๅพทไผฏๅ ใๅฃๆฏๅฃๆฎฟ็ญ็ฝ้ฉฌๅผๆๅ ้็ปญๅพไปฅๅ ดๅปบ่ตทๆฅใ[19]1241ๅนด๏ผ่ๅคไบบๆดๅซๅนถ็็งไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซใ[20]1257ๅนด๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅ ฌๆณขๅๆฏ็ฆๅคซไบไธๆๅๆ ท้ๅปบไบ่ฏฅๅ[21]๏ผๅนถๅ็ งๅผ็ฝ่จ็ฆๅคซๅปบ็ซไบไปฅ้ฉฌๆ ผๅพทๅ กๆณๅพไธบ่ๆฌ็ๅธๆฟๅถๅบฆ๏ผๅ ๆฌๅฏนๅธๆฐ็็จๆถไผๆ ไปฅๅ่ดธๆ็นๆ็ญใ[22]1259ๅนด๏ผ่ๅคไบบๅๆฌกๆ ๅคบ่ฏฅๅใ1287ๅนด๏ผ่ๅคไบบ็ฌฌไธๆฌก่ฟ็ฏๅ ๆ็งๅคซ๏ผๅพ็ไบๆฐๅปบ็้ฒๅพกๅทฅไบ๏ผๅ ฅไพต็่ๅคไบบ่ขซๅป้ใ[23]
ย 
ย 1335ๅนด๏ผๅก้ฝ็ฑณๆฅไธไธๅจๅ่ฅฟ็ไธค็้ๅบๅปบ็ซไบไปฅ่ชๅทฑๅๅญๅฝๅ็ๆฐๅ๏ผๅณๅก้ฝ็ฑณๆฅใ1362ๅนด๏ผๅก้ฝ็ฑณๆฅไธญๅฟๅฐๅธฆๅปบ็ซไบ้ฒๅพกๆงๅๅข๏ผๅๆถๅฃๅผฅ้ขๅฐๅฃ่พพๅฐผ่ๅฃๆฎฟ่พนไธ็ไธๅๅฐไบง่ขซ่ต ไบๅฅฅๆฏๅฎไผใ[24]1364ๅนด๏ผๅก้ฝ็ฑณๆฅไธไธๅปบ็ซไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅญฆ๏ผไปไบๆท้ๅคงๅญธ๏ผใไฝไธบไธญๆฌง็ฌฌไบๅค่็้ซ็ญๆ่ฒๆบๆ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅญฆ็ๆ็ซ๏ผๆๅคงๆ้ซไบๅๅธ็ๅฐไฝๅ้่ฆๆงใ[25]
่ฟๅ ฅ้ ็้็ๆๆถๆ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅพๅฐ่ฟไธๆญฅๅๅฑใไฝไธบๆณขๅ ฐ็ๅฝ็้ฆ้ฝๅๆฑ่จๅ็็ๆๅ๏ผ่ฟๅบงๅๅธๅธๅผไบ่ฎธๅคๆฅ่ชๅฝๅค็ๆๅทฅไธ่ ใๅไบบๅ่กไผ๏ผ็งๅญฆๅ่บๆฏๅผๅง่ฌๅๅๅฑใ[26][27]็ๅฎคๆบๆๅไบๆท้ๅคงๅญธไฟๆไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆณขๅ ฐๆๅญฆๆๅ็็ฌฌไธๆฌกๅคง็น่ฃใ[28]
้ป้ๆถไปฃ
็ผ่พ15ใ16ไธ็บชๆฏๆณขๅ ฐ็โ้ป้ๆถไปฃโใ[29]่ฟไธๆถๆ๏ผๆณขๅ ฐๆถ็ฐๅบไบ่ฎธๅคๆฐๅบ็่บๆฏๅๅปบ็ญไฝๅ[30][31]๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅก้ฝ็ฑณๆฅๅบไธๅ้จ็นๅคชไบบ่ๅฑ ๅบ็ๆง็นๅคชไผๅ ๅฐฑๆฏไธๅคงไปฃ่กจใ[32]ๅก้ฝ็ฑณๆฅๅไธ็ปๆฒปๆถๆ๏ผ่ฎธๅค่บๆฏๅฎถๅๅพๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅฎๅฑ ใ1473ๅนด๏ผๅกๆฏๅธยทๆฝ็นๅณๅธไบๆญคๅฐๅทๅบๆณขๅ ฐ็ฐๅญๆๆฉ็ๅฐๅทๅใๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆฅๅใ[33][34]๏ผ้ๅ็บฆ็ฟฐยทๅๅๅจๅๅ ๅผ่ฎพไบไธๅบงๅฐๅทๅใ[35]
1520ๅนด๏ผๆฑๆฏยท่ด่ตซๅงๅจๅ ๆ็งๅคซ้ธ้ ไบๆณขๅ ฐๆๅฏ็ๅ็ๆๅ ้๏ผๅนถๆ นๆฎๅฝๆถๆณขๅ ฐๅฝ็้ฝๆ ผ่็นไธไธ็ๅๅญๅฝๅไธบ้ฝๆ ผ่็น้ใ[36]้ฟๅฐๅธ้ทๅธ็นยทไธขๅ็ๅผๅผๆฑๆฏยทไธขๅๆพๆฏ้ฝๆ ผ่็นไธไธ็ๅฎซๅปท็ปๅฎถใ[37]ๆฑๆฏยทๅฏยทๅบซๅงๅทด่ตซไธบๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๆฐไธชๆๅ ๅไฝไบ็ฅญๅ็ปใ[38]1553ๅนด๏ผๅก้ฝ็ฑณๆฅๅบ่ฎฎไผ่ตไบๅฝๅฐ็นๅคช็คพๅบไบ็ฐๆ้ฒๅพกๅๅข่ฅฟไพงๅปบ็ซ่ชๅทฑๅๅข็ๆๅฉใ1608ๅนด๏ผ็ฑไบ็คพๅบ่งๆจก็่จ่ๅๆณข่ฅฟ็ฑณไบ็นๅคชไบบ็ๆตๅ ฅ๏ผๅๅขๅพๅฐ่ฟไธๆญฅๆฉๅปบใ[39]1572ๅนด๏ผ้ ็้็ๆๆๅไธไฝๅฝ็้ฝๆ ผ่็นยทๅฅฅๅคๆฏ็นๆญปๅๆ ๅฃ๏ผๆณๅฝ็ไบจๅฉ็ปงๆฟๆณขๅ ฐ็ไฝ๏ผ้ๅ็ไฝๅจๅไธชๅคๅฝ็ปๆฒป่ ไน้ดๅๅคๆๆ๏ผๅฏผ่ดๅๅธ้่ฆๆงๅคงไธบไธ้๏ผๅ ไน็ๅ ธไบบ็ไพต็ฅๅ่ บ้ผ ็ซ็็ๅ๏ผๅคง้ๆ ่พๅธๆฐๆญปไบก๏ผๅๅธๅคๅข้ชไธๅ ้ใ1596ๅนด๏ผ็ฆ่จๅฎถๆ็้ฝๆ ผ่็นไธไธๅฐๆณขๅ ฐ็ซ้ถๅฎ่้ฆ็้ฆ้ฝไปๅ ๆ็งๅคซ่ฟ่ณๅๆฒใ[3]
19ไธ็บช
็ผ่พ
ย ่ช18ไธ็บชๅๆ่ตท๏ผๆณขๅ ฐ็ซ้ถๅฎ่้ฆไธๆญ่กฐ่ฝ๏ผๅฐไบ18ไธ็บช90ๅนดไปฃไธญๆ๏ผๆณขๅ ฐ็ซ้ถๅฎ่้ฆๅทฒไธคๅบฆ้ญๅฐๆฎ้ฒๅฃซใๅฅฅๅฐๅฉๅไฟ็ฝๆฏไธๅคงๅผบ้ป็ๅใ[40]1791ๅนด๏ผๅฅฅๅฐๅฉๅคงๅ ฌ็บฆ็ๅคซไบไธๅฐๅก้ฝ็ฑณๆฅๅนถๅ ฅๅ ๆ็งๅคซใๆญคๅ๏ผๅฏๆ็็นๅคชไบบๅฎถๅบญๅผๅง้็ปญ่ฟๅบใไฝๅฟไบๅฎๆฏๆฅ็ฆๆญข่กๆ ็ๆณไปค๏ผ็ปๅคงๅคๆฐ็นๅคชไบบไป็ถไฝๅจ่ท็ฆปๅ ถไผ ็ป่ไผๅบๆ่พ่ฟ็ๅฐๆนใ1794ๅนด๏ผๅกๅพทไนไปยทๆฏๆฏไธไป็งๅจไธญๅคฎ้ๅธๅนฟๅบๅๅจไบไธๆฌกไธๆๅ็ๅไฟ่ตทไบใๅฐฝ็ฎกไปๅจๆ้ฝ็ฆ็ปด้ๆๅฝนไธญไปฅๅฐ่ๅคๅๅพไบๅฏนไฟๅ็่ๅฉ๏ผไฝๆ็ปไปๆงๅฏผ่ดไบ็ฌฌไธๆฌก็ๅๆณขๅ ฐ๏ผๆณขๅ ฐ็ซ้ถๅฎ่้ฆ็ญไบกใ[41]1809ๅนด๏ผๆฟ็ ดไปยทๆณขๆฟๅทดไปๅฅฅๅฐๅฉๆไธญๅคบๅไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซ๏ผๅนถๅฐๅ ถ็ฝฎไบๅๆฒๅ ฌๅฝ็ฎก่พไนไธใ1815ๅนด๏ผๆฟ็ ดไปๆ่ดฅๅ๏ผๅๅผบๅฌๅผ็ปดไน็บณไผ่ฎฎ๏ผๆขๅคไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅๆ็่พน็๏ผๅนถๅปบ็ซไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซ่ช็ฑๅธใ1846ๅนด๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅๆฌก็ๅๅๅฏนๅฅฅๅฐๅฉๅธๅฝ็่ตทไน๏ผ็ปๆ้ญๅฐ้ๅใ[42]่ฉฒๅนด11ๆ16ๆฅ๏ผๅฅฅๅฐๅฉ่ไฟๅ็ฐฝ็ฝฒๆข็ดๅ๏ผๅฐๅ ถๅๅนถ๏ผๅปบ็ซๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅ ฌๅ๏ผ็ฑๅฅฅๅฐๅฉ็ๅธๅ ผไปปๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅ ฌใ[43][44]
1866ๅนด๏ผๆฎๅฅฅๆไบๅคฑๅฉๅ๏ผๅฅฅๅฐๅฉ็ปไบไบๅ ๅฉ่ฅฟไบๅฐๅบๆดๅค็่ชๆฒปๆใ[45]่ฟไธๆถๆ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ฑไบๆฟๆฒป้ฃๆฐ่พ่ช็ฑ๏ผๆไธบไบๆณขๅ ฐๅฐๅบ็ๆๅใ่บๆฏไธญๅฟไปฅๅๆณขๅ ฐๆฐๆ็่ฑกๅพ๏ผๅนถ่ทๅพไบโๆณขๅ ฐ้ ๅ ธโ็็งฐๅทใๅฝๆถ๏ผ่ฎธๅค้กถๅฐ็ๆณขๅ ฐ่บๆฏๅฎถๅฑ ไฝไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซ[46]๏ผไพๅฆ็ปๅฎถๆฌยท้ฉฌๆณฐไผ็ง[47]ใๅงไฝๅฎถๆฏๅฆๅฐผๆฏๆๅคซยท็ปดๆฏ็ฎๅฎๆฏๅบ็ญใ[48]19ไธ็บชๆซ็ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ้ๆธๆผๅไธบไธๅบง็ฐไปฃๅๅๅธใ
20ไธ็บช่ณไป
็ผ่พ
ย 
ย 1901ๅนด๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅผ้ไบ่ชๆฅๆฐดๅๆ่ฝจ็ต่ฝฆ็บฟ่ทฏใ1910ๅนด่ณ1915ๅนด้ด๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซไธๅ ถๅ้ๅฐๅบ้ๆธๅๅนถไธบไธไธชๅไธบโๅคงๅ ๆ็งๅคซโ็ๅไธ่กๆฟๅบๅใ[49][50]
็ฌฌไธๆฌกไธ็ๅคงๆ็ๅๅ๏ผ็บฆ็ๅคซยทๆฏ่ๆฏๅบๅจๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ปๅปบไบ็ฌฌไธ็ฒพ้่ฟ๏ผ้ๅๆไธบๆณขๅ ฐๅๅข๏ผ๏ผไบๅๆณขๅ ฐ็ฌ็ซใ[51]1914ๅนด11ๆ๏ผไฟๅๆพ็ญๆๅฐๅดๅฐไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซใ[52]1918ๅนด๏ผๆณขๅ ฐๆธ ็ฎๅงๅไผๆงๅถไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซ๏ผ็ปๆไบๅฅฅๅฐๅฉๅฏนๆญคๅฐ100ๅคๅนด็็ปๆฒปใ[53][54]
ไธๆ็ปๆๅ๏ผๆณขๅ ฐ็ฌฌไบๅ ฑๅๅฝๆ็ซ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆขๅคไบๅ ถๆณขๅ ฐๆๅใๅญฆๆฏ้้็ๅฐไฝใ่ฟไธๆถๆ๏ผAGH็งๅญฆๆๆฏๅคงๅญฆใๆฌยท้ฉฌๆณฐไผ็ง็พๆฏๅญฆ้ข็ญ้ซ็ญๆ่ฒๆบๆไปฅๅๅ ๆ้่ฆ็่ไธๅญฆๆ ก็ธ็ปงๆ็ซใๅๆถ๏ผ่ฟ้ไนๆไธบๆณขๅ ฐ็นๅคชไบบ็ไธๅคง้่ฆๆๅไธญๅฟ๏ผ้กๅฎไธปไนใๅณๅทฅไธปไน็ญๆๆณๅจๅๅธ็็นๅคช้ๅนดไธญๅนฟไธบ็่ก๏ผๅ่ฅฟ่ฟช็ถๅคชๆไธ็นๅคชๆๆน้ฉๆดพ็ญไธๅ็็นๅคชๆๆดพไนๅจๆญคๅพไปฅๅ ฑๅญใๅๅฑใ[55][56][57]
ย 1939ๅนด๏ผ็ด็ฒนๅพทๅๅ ฅไพตๆณขๅ ฐๅ๏ผๅฐๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅๅ ฅๅ ถๅปบ็ซ็ๆฎๆฐๆฟๆๆณข่ญ็ธฝ็ฃๅบ็ฎก่พไธใ1939ๅนด10ๆ26ๆฅ๏ผๅพทๅฝ่ฎพ็ฝฎไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅบ๏ผๆฏไธบๆณขๅ ฐๆป็ฃๅบไธๅไธชๅบๅไนไธ๏ผไปฅๅ ๆ็งๅคซไธบๅ ถ้ฆๅบใ[58]็บณ็ฒนๅพทๅฝๆฟๅบไปปๅฝๅพๅธๅบ่บซ็ๆผขๆฏยทๆณ้ๅ ไธบๆณขๅ ฐๆป็ฃ๏ผไปฅ็ฆ็ถญ็พๅๅ กไธบๅๅ ฌๅฐ็นใ็บณ็ฒน่ฎกๅๅฐๅไธญ็ๆณขๅ ฐไบบๅ็นๅคชไบบๅ จ้จ้ฉฑ้ๅบๅป๏ผๅนถ็จๅพท่ฏญ้ๆฐๅฝๅๅๅธ่ก้๏ผๅๆถๅฐๅ ถๅฎฃไผ ไธบไธๅๅฒๆ ไน ็ๅพทๅฝๅๅธ๏ผไป่ๅฎ็ฐๅฐๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅ จ็ๅพทๅฝๅ็็ฎๆ ใ[59]1939ๅนด11ๆ28ๆฅ๏ผๆฑๆฏยทๆณ้ๅ ่ฎพ็ฝฎไบ็นๅคชไบบๅงๅไผ๏ผๅๅฉ็บณ็ฒนๅฝๅฑๅค็็นๅคชไบบๅฃ็ป่ฎฐใๅพ็จไปฅๅๅผบๅถๅณๅจ็ญๆฟๅกใๆณขๅ ฐๅฎถไนกๅๅจๆญคๅฐๅปบ็ซไบไธๅฅๅนณ่ก็่กๆฟไฝ็ณปใ[60]
็ฌฌไบๆฌกไธ็ๅคงๆๅๅค๏ผ็บฆๆ56,000ๅ็นๅคชไบบๅฑ ไฝๅจๅ ๆ็งๅคซ๏ผ็บฆๅ ๆปไบบๅฃ็ๅๅไนไธใๅฐ1939ๅนด11ๆ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็็นๅคชไบบๅฃๅทฒๅข้ฟๅฐ็บฆ70,000ไบบใ[61][62]ๆฎๅพทๅฝ1940ๅนด็็ป่ฎก๏ผๆดไธชๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅบๅฑ ไฝ็่ถ ่ฟ20ไธ็นๅคชไบบ๏ผๅ ่ฏฅๅคงๅบๆปไบบๅฃ็5%ไปฅไธใ็ถ่๏ผ่ฟไธๅฐๅบ็นๅคชไบบ็ๆฐ้ๅฏ่ฝ่ขซไฝไผฐไบใ[62]ๆญคๅค๏ผไธบๆงๆฏๆณขๅ ฐๆๅ๏ผไปๆบๅคดไธๆถ็ญๆณขๅ ฐๆฐๆๆ่ฏ๏ผ็บณ็ฒนๅฝๅฑ็ป็ปไบโๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็นๅซ่กๅจโ๏ผๅฐ180ๅไปฅไธ็ๅคงๅญฆๆๆๅๅญฆ่ ๆผ้ๅฐไบ่จๅ ๆฃฎ่ฑชๆฃฎ้ไธญ่ฅไปฅๅ่พพ่ฑช้ไธญ่ฅใๅๆฅ๏ผไปไปฌไธญ็ๅนธๅญ่ ๅจๆๅคงๅฉๅๆต็่ฏทๆฑไธ่ท้ใ[63][64]
1939ๅนด12ๆ่ตท๏ผๅฝๅฑๅฐๅไธญ็็นๅคชไบบๅคง่งๆจก้ฉฑ้ๅฐไนกๆๅฐๅบใ1941ๅนด3ๆ๏ผ็บณ็ฒนๅฝๅฑๅผๅงๅฐไป็ถ็ๅจๅไธญ็็นๅคชไบบๅ จ้จ้ๅ ฅๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ถๅคชไบบๅ๏ผๅบๅ ็่ฎธๅค็นๅคชไบบๆ่ ็ ๆญป๏ผๆ่ ้ฅฟๆญปใ่ตทๅ๏ผ็นๅคชไบบๅบๆฏ็ธๅฏนๅผๆพ็๏ผ็นๅคชไบบๅฏไปฅ่ช็ฑ่ฟๅบใไฝ้็ๆถ้ด็ๆจ็งป๏ผ็บณ็ฒนๅฝๅฑๅ จ้ขๅๆญไบ็นๅคชไบบๅบไธๅค็็่ฟ็ป๏ผๅฎๅ จๆชๆฝไนๆดๅ ไธฅๅฏใ1941ๅนด็งๅคฉ๏ผๅ ๅซ้ๅถๅฎไบโ้่ฟๅณๅจ็ญ็ปโ็่ฎกๅ๏ผ่ฟ่ฟไธๆญฅๆถๅไบๅบๅ ็นๅคชไบบ็ๅคๅขใ[65]ๅๆฅ๏ผ็นๅคชไบบๅบๅฑ ๆฐๆๅจๅบๅ ่ขซ็ดๆฅๅฑ ๆ๏ผๆ่ขซ้ๅ ฅ่ดไน็ญ่จ็ญ็ป่ฅใๆฎ็ฆ่ๅคซ้ไธญ่ฅใๅฅฅๆฏๅจ่พ้ไธญ่ฅ็ญ้ไธญ่ฅใ[66]1942ๅนด6ๆ่ณ9ๆ้ด๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅคงๅบ็็นๅคชไบบ่ขซๅคง่งๆจก้ๅ ฅ้ไธญ่ฅๅฑ ๆ๏ผๅ ถไธญๅฏนๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็นๅคชไบบ็้ฃ้ๅ็ๅจ1942ๅนด6ๆ็็ฌฌไธๅจใ[62]1943ๅนด3ๆ๏ผ็นๅคชไบบๅบ่ขซๅฝปๅบๆธ ็ฉบ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็นๅคช็คพๅบ่ชๆญคๆไธบๅๅฒใ[67]
่ๅๅฏผๆผ็พ ๆผยทๆณข่ญๆฏๅบๆฏๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ถๅคชไบบๅ็ๅนธๅญ่ ไนไธใไผไธๅฎถๅฅงๆฏๅกยท่พๅพทๅๅจ็นๅคชไบบๅบๆ้ๅๅทฅๅฐๅ ถๅทฅๅๅทฅไฝ๏ผไฝฟๅพไปไปฌๅ ไบ้ญๅๅฑ ๆ็ๅ่ฟใ[68][69]่ฎธๅคๆๅณๅจ่ฝๅ็็ถๅคชไบบๅนถๆฒกๆ่ขซ็ดๆฅ้ๅฐ็ญ็ป่ฅ๏ผ่ๆฏ่ขซ้ๅฐๆป็ฃๅบ่พๅบ็ๅ ถไป้ไธญ่ฅๅๅณๅทฅใ[62]ๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅจไบๆไธญๅๆ็ธๅฏน่พ่ฝป๏ผๅไธญ็ๅค่ฟนๅคงๅคๆช้ญๆฏๅใ[70]ใ1945ๅนด1ๆ๏ผ็งๆถ ๅคซๅ ๅธ ็้ข่่ๅ้่ฟๅ ฅๅ ๆ็งๅคซ๏ผ้ๅๅผๅง้ฎๆๆณขๅ ฐๆๅฝๅๆๅๅๅฟ ไบๆณขๅ ฐๆตไบกๆฟๅบ็ไบบใ[71]
ๆณขๅ ฐไบบๆฐๅ ฑๅๅฝๆถๆ๏ผๆฟๅบๅจ่ฏบ็ฆ่กๅกๅบๅปบ้ ไบๆณขๅ ฐๅ จๅฝๆๅคง็็ผ้ขๅใ[72]ๅๅฎ็ผ้ขๅ๏ผไปๆฃฎๅ็ฑณๅฐ็ผ้ขๅ๏ผ็ๅปบ็ซ๏ผๆ ๅฟ็ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ฑๅญฆๆฏไธญๅฟ่ฝฌๅไธบๅทฅไธไธญๅฟใ[73]ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ไบบๅฃไนๅ ๆฐ็ๅทฅไบบ้ถๅฑ็่ฟๅ ฅ่ๅฟซ้ๅข้ฟใ
ๅ็ฆยท่ฅ็ยทๆฒไผ่็ฆๅจ1964ๅนด่ณ1978ๅนด้ดๆ ไปปๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆปๆๅบๆปไธปๆ๏ผๆ้ดๆๅ่ฏดๆๆฟๅบๅจๆฐๅทฅไธๅบๅปบ่ฎพ็ฌฌไธๆนๆๅ ใ[73][74]1978ๅนด๏ผๆฒไผ่็ฆๅฝ้ๆๅฎ๏ผ็งฐ่ฅๆไฟ็ฅฟไบไธ๏ผๆไธบ455ๅนดๆฅ็ฌฌไธไฝ้ๆๅคงๅฉๅบ่บซ็ๆๅฎใๅๅนด๏ผ่ๅๅฝๆ็งๆ็ป็ปๅฐๅ ๆ็งๅคซ่ๅๅๅ ฅ็ฌฌไธๆนไธ็้ไบงๅๅฝใ
ๅฐ็
็ผ่พ
ย ๅ ๆ็งๅคซไฝไบๆณขๅ ฐๅ้จ็ปดๆฏ็ฆๆฒณ็๏ผๅฐๅคๅๅฐๅทด้กๅฑฑ่ๅ้บ็่ฐทๅฐไนไธญ๏ผๆตทๆ219ๅ ฌๅฐบ๏ผๅไธดๅ ๆ็งๅคซ-็ดๆฏๆ้็ฆ้ซๅฐ๏ผๅ่ทๅก็นๆๅฑฑ่100ๅ ฌ้๏ผไธ่ทๆณขไน่พน็230ๅ ฌ้ใๅธไธญๅฟไฝไบ็ปดๆฏ็ฆๆฒณๅทฆๅฒธใ
ๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆไบไธช่ช็ถไฟๆคๅบ๏ผๆป้ข็งฏ็บฆ48.6ๅ ฌ้กทใ็ฑไบๅ ทๆ้ซๅบฆ็็ๆไปทๅผ๏ผๅ ๆญคๆฟๅบไธ้จ็ซๆณไฟๆค่ฟไบๅฐๅบใๅๅธ่ฅฟๅไพง็ดง้ปๅซๆๅฐผ-ๆณฐๆถ ๅ ไพ็ฝ็บชไฟๆคๅบ[75]๏ผๅฆๆไธ้จๅๅๅบไฝไบ็ปดๆฏ็ฆๆฒณ่ฐท็็ๆ่ตฐๅปๅ ใ[76]
ๆฐๅ
็ผ่พ
ย ไธ่ฌ่่จ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๆฐๅๅฑไบๆธฉๅธฆๆตทๆดๆงๆฐๅ[77]๏ผไฝๅ ถๅ ทไฝๆฐๆฎๆด็ฌฆๅๅๅคง้ๆงๆฐๅ็็นๅพใ[78][79]ๅจ่พๆฉ็่ตๆไธญ๏ผ่ฏฅๅธ็ๆฐๅๅๅฑไบๆธฉๅธฆๅคง้ๆงๆนฟๆถฆๆฐๅ็ๆๅคไบๅใ[80][81]ๆ นๆฎๆๅฒ่ยทๅฅง็งๆฒ็ถญๅฅ็ๆฐๅๅ็ฑปๆณ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๆฐๅๅฑไบๆๆธฉๅธฆ่ๅๅๆฐๅใ[82]
็ฑไบๅ ถๅฐ็ไฝ็ฝฎ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅฎนๆๅๅฐๆตทๆดๅๅๆ็้ดๆฅๅฝฑๅ๏ผไฝฟๅพๅ ถๅคฉๆฐๅฏ่ฝๅจ็ญๆถ้ดๅ ๅบ็ฐๅง็ๅๅใ[83][84]
ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ่ท็ฆปๅคงๆตท็ธๅฏน่พ่ฟ๏ผๅ ๆญคๆธฉๅทฎ่พไธบๆๆพ๏ผๅๅญฃๅๆใๅนดๅนณๅๆฐๆธฉไธบ8.9ยฐC๏ผ1ๆๅนณๅๆฐๆธฉไธบ-1.6ยฐC๏ผ7ๆๅนณๅๆฐๆธฉไธบ19.3ยฐCใ[85]
็ธ่พไบ้ฆ้ฝๅๆฒ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซไธๅนดไธญๅฌๅญฃไปฅๅคๅคง้จๅๆถ้ด็ๆฐๆธฉๅๅ็ธๅฏน่พๅฐ๏ผ่ๅจๅฌๅคฉ๏ผๅๆณขๅ ฐๅ้จ็ๅ ถไปๅฐๅบไธๆ ท๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๆฅๆธฉๅทฎ่พๅคง๏ผ้ฃๆดๆธฉๅใๆด้ซ็ๅคช้ณ้ซๅบฆ่งไนไฝฟๅพๅฝๅฐ็ๆค็ฉ่ฝๅค็้ฟๆด้ฟๆถ้ดใ[86]ๆญคๅค๏ผๆ นๆฎ่พๆฉ็ๆฐๆฎ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๅนณๅๆฅ็ งๆถ้ฟ่พๅๆฒ็ญ๏ผไฝไธค่ ็็ธๅฏนๆนฟๅบฆๅทฎๅผๅพๅฐ๏ผ้ฃๅๅไปฅไธๅ้ฃไธบไธปใ[78]
| ๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆบๅบๆฐๅๆฐๆฎ๏ผๅนณๅๆฐๆฎ1991ๅนดโ2020ๅนด๏ผๆ็ซฏๆฐๆฎ1951ๅนด่ณไป | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ๆไปฝ | 1ๆ | 2ๆ | 3ๆ | 4ๆ | 5ๆ | 6ๆ | 7ๆ | 8ๆ | 9ๆ | 10ๆ | 11ๆ | 12ๆ | ๅ จๅนด |
| ๅๅฒๆ้ซๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | 16.6 (61.9) |
19.8 (67.6) |
24.1 (75.4) |
30.0 (86.0) |
32.6 (90.7) |
34.2 (93.6) |
35.7 (96.3) |
37.3 (99.1) |
34.8 (94.6) |
27.1 (80.8) |
22.5 (72.5) |
19.3 (66.7) |
37.3 (99.1) |
| ๅนณๅๆ้ซๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | 10.0 (50.0) |
12.3 (54.1) |
18.0 (64.4) |
24.3 (75.7) |
27.9 (82.2) |
31.1 (88.0) |
32.5 (90.5) |
32.2 (90.0) |
27.6 (81.7) |
23.4 (74.1) |
17.3 (63.1) |
10.9 (51.6) |
33.8 (92.8) |
| ๅนณๅ้ซๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | 1.6 (34.9) |
3.7 (38.7) |
8.4 (47.1) |
15.1 (59.2) |
19.8 (67.6) |
23.2 (73.8) |
25.3 (77.5) |
25.0 (77.0) |
19.5 (67.1) |
14.0 (57.2) |
7.6 (45.7) |
2.7 (36.9) |
13.8 (56.8) |
| ๆฅๅๆฐๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | โ1.6 (29.1) |
โ0.2 (31.6) |
3.5 (38.3) |
9.3 (48.7) |
14.0 (57.2) |
17.6 (63.7) |
19.3 (66.7) |
18.9 (66.0) |
13.9 (57.0) |
8.8 (47.8) |
3.8 (38.8) |
โ0.5 (31.1) |
8.9 (48.0) |
| ๅนณๅไฝๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | โ4.7 (23.5) |
โ3.7 (25.3) |
โ0.8 (30.6) |
3.7 (38.7) |
8.5 (47.3) |
12.2 (54.0) |
13.8 (56.8) |
13.4 (56.1) |
9.2 (48.6) |
4.7 (40.5) |
0.6 (33.1) |
โ3.4 (25.9) |
4.5 (40.1) |
| ๅนณๅๆไฝๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | โ15.7 (3.7) |
โ13.0 (8.6) |
โ8.0 (17.6) |
โ3.0 (26.6) |
1.9 (35.4) |
6.6 (43.9) |
8.3 (46.9) |
7.7 (45.9) |
2.8 (37.0) |
โ3.2 (26.2) |
โ7.3 (18.9) |
โ13.5 (7.7) |
โ18.0 (โ0.4) |
| ๅๅฒๆไฝๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | โ29.9 (โ21.8) |
โ29.5 (โ21.1) |
โ26.7 (โ16.1) |
โ7.5 (18.5) |
โ3.2 (26.2) |
โ0.1 (31.8) |
5.4 (41.7) |
2.7 (36.9) |
โ3.1 (26.4) |
โ7.4 (18.7) |
โ17.2 (1.0) |
โ29.5 (โ21.1) |
โ29.9 (โ21.8) |
| ๅนณๅ้ๆฐด้ mm๏ผ่ฑๅฏธ๏ผ | 37.9 (1.49) |
32.3 (1.27) |
38.1 (1.50) |
46.4 (1.83) |
79.0 (3.11) |
77.0 (3.03) |
98.2 (3.87) |
72.5 (2.85) |
65.8 (2.59) |
51.2 (2.02) |
41.4 (1.63) |
33.4 (1.31) |
673.0 (26.50) |
| ๅนณๅๆๅคง้ชๆทฑ cm๏ผ่ฑๅฏธ๏ผ | 7.6 (3.0) |
6.5 (2.6) |
2.7 (1.1) |
0.9 (0.4) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.0 (0.0) |
0.3 (0.1) |
2.7 (1.1) |
4.1 (1.6) |
7.6 (3.0) |
| ๅนณๅ้ๆฐดๅคฉๆฐ๏ผโฅ 0.1 mm๏ผ | 16.93 | 15.71 | 15.00 | 12.87 | 14.97 | 13.37 | 15.00 | 12.00 | 12.07 | 13.40 | 14.67 | 15.77 | 171.74 |
| ๅนณๅ้้ชๅคฉๆฐ๏ผโฅ 0 cm๏ผ | 17.9 | 14.1 | 5.5 | 0.8 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.3 | 4.3 | 11.9 | 54.8 |
| ๅนณๅ็ธๅฐๆฟๅบฆ๏ผ๏ผ ๏ผ | 85.8 | 82.5 | 76.3 | 69.9 | 72.0 | 72.7 | 73.2 | 74.5 | 80.2 | 83.8 | 87.7 | 87.5 | 78.8 |
| ๆๅๆฅ็ งๆๆธ | 43.3 | 63.2 | 100.5 | 136.9 | 200.8 | 193.5 | 210.5 | 200.7 | 125.4 | 97.7 | 48.8 | 32.1 | 1,453.4 |
| ๆฐๆฎๆฅๆบ1๏ผInstitute of Meteorology and Water Management[85][87][88][89][90][91][92][93] | |||||||||||||
| ๆฐๆฎๆฅๆบ2๏ผMeteomodel.pl (records, relative humidity 1991โ2020, sunshine 1971โ2000)[94][95][96][97] | |||||||||||||
| ๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅคฉๆๅฐๆฐๅๆฐๆฎ๏ผๅนณๅๆฐๆฎ1991ๅนดโ2020ๅนด๏ผๆ็ซฏๆฐๆฎ1951ๅนด่ณไป | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ๆไปฝ | 1ๆ | 2ๆ | 3ๆ | 4ๆ | 5ๆ | 6ๆ | 7ๆ | 8ๆ | 9ๆ | 10ๆ | 11ๆ | 12ๆ | ๅ จๅนด |
| ๅๅฒๆ้ซๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | 17.3 (63.1) |
21.0 (69.8) |
24.7 (76.5) |
31.2 (88.2) |
33.7 (92.7) |
36.0 (96.8) |
36.7 (98.1) |
38.3 (100.9) |
35.8 (96.4) |
27.9 (82.2) |
24.0 (75.2) |
19.9 (67.8) |
38.3 (100.9) |
| ๅนณๅๆ้ซๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | 10.9 (51.6) |
13.3 (55.9) |
18.9 (66.0) |
25.3 (77.5) |
28.9 (84.0) |
32.1 (89.8) |
33.4 (92.1) |
33.2 (91.8) |
28.4 (83.1) |
24.4 (75.9) |
17.8 (64.0) |
11.6 (52.9) |
34.7 (94.5) |
| ๅนณๅ้ซๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | 2.3 (36.1) |
4.4 (39.9) |
9.1 (48.4) |
15.8 (60.4) |
20.6 (69.1) |
24.0 (75.2) |
26.0 (78.8) |
25.8 (78.4) |
20.2 (68.4) |
14.6 (58.3) |
8.2 (46.8) |
3.3 (37.9) |
14.5 (58.1) |
| ๆฅๅๆฐๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | โ1.0 (30.2) |
0.4 (32.7) |
4.1 (39.4) |
9.8 (49.6) |
14.6 (58.3) |
18.3 (64.9) |
20.0 (68.0) |
19.3 (66.7) |
14.2 (57.6) |
9.2 (48.6) |
4.4 (39.9) |
0.2 (32.4) |
9.5 (49.1) |
| ๅนณๅไฝๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | โ3.5 (25.7) |
โ2.6 (27.3) |
0.3 (32.5) |
4.8 (40.6) |
9.5 (49.1) |
13.2 (55.8) |
14.9 (58.8) |
14.4 (57.9) |
10.1 (50.2) |
5.7 (42.3) |
1.7 (35.1) |
โ2.2 (28.0) |
5.5 (41.9) |
| ๅนณๅๆไฝๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | โ14.0 (6.8) |
โ11.4 (11.5) |
โ6.4 (20.5) |
โ1.6 (29.1) |
3.0 (37.4) |
8.1 (46.6) |
9.9 (49.8) |
9.2 (48.6) |
3.8 (38.8) |
โ1.8 (28.8) |
โ5.8 (21.6) |
โ11.6 (11.1) |
โ16.4 (2.5) |
| ๅๅฒๆไฝๆธฉ ยฐC๏ผยฐF๏ผ | โ26.1 (โ15.0) |
โ26.8 (โ16.2) |
โ23.2 (โ9.8) |
โ4.6 (23.7) |
โ1.8 (28.8) |
2.3 (36.1) |
6.6 (43.9) |
4.5 (40.1) |
โ2.6 (27.3) |
โ5.7 (21.7) |
โ16.1 (3.0) |
โ25.7 (โ14.3) |
โ26.8 (โ16.2) |
| ๅนณๅ้ๆฐด้ mm๏ผ่ฑๅฏธ๏ผ | 37.9 (1.49) |
33.3 (1.31) |
38.3 (1.51) |
48.4 (1.91) |
82.6 (3.25) |
81.1 (3.19) |
98.6 (3.88) |
75.1 (2.96) |
70.3 (2.77) |
53.1 (2.09) |
41.8 (1.65) |
32.4 (1.28) |
693.0 (27.28) |
| ๅนณๅ้ๆฐดๅคฉๆฐ๏ผโฅ 0.1 mm๏ผ | 16.9 | 15.2 | 14.9 | 12.9 | 14.6 | 13.8 | 14.7 | 12.4 | 12.0 | 13.6 | 14.7 | 16.3 | 172.0 |
| ๅนณๅ็ธๅฐๆฟๅบฆ๏ผ๏ผ ๏ผ | 82.2 | 78.9 | 73.0 | 66.1 | 68.4 | 68.9 | 70.0 | 72.4 | 79.3 | 82.7 | 84.8 | 83.9 | 75.9 |
| ๆฐๆฎๆฅๆบ๏ผhttps://meteomodel.pl/dane/srednie-miesieczne[98] | |||||||||||||
ไบค้
็ผ่พ้ต่ทฏ
็ผ่พๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆฏๆณข่ญๆๅคง็้ต่ทฏๆจ็ดไนไธ๏ผๅๅๅคงๅๅธ็ๆ้ฃๆฅ๏ผๅ ๆฌไบ้ๅพ่ฏๆฒ่ๆ ผไฝๆฏๅ ็ๆฝๅคๅฉ่ฏบๅ่ป๏ผไปฅๅ่็ถญไน็ดใๅธๆๆ ผใๅธ้ไฝฉๆฏใๅบ่ผ็ญๅๅธ็่ทจๅ่ทฏ็ทใ
ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ซ่ป็ธฝ็ซไฝๆผๅธไธญๅฟ็็งๆฏๅฅ่ก๏ผ่ฉฒ่ป็ซ่ๅฐๆณข่ญๅ ฌ่ป็ซไปฅๅ่ทฏ้ข้ป่ป็ไธป้ง้็ซ็ตๆไบๅ ๆ็งๅคซไบค้ไธญๅฟใ
่ทฏ้ข้ป่ป
็ผ่พๅฐ้ต
็ผ่พ2025ๅนด๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅฎฃๅธๅปบ้ ๅฐ้ต็ณป็ตฑ็่จ็ซ๏ผๅ ฑๆๅ ฉๆข่ทฏ็ท่29ๅบง่ป็ซ๏ผ้ ่จๆผ2035ๅนดๅ็จ[99][100]ใ
ๅๅธๆฏ่ง
็ผ่พ
ย 
ย ๅไฝๅนดๆฅ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซไปๆๆฉ็ๆ ธๅฟๅบ้ๆธๅๅคๅๅฑ๏ผๅนถไธๅนธ่ฟๅฐ่บฒ่ฟไบ20ไธ็บชไธคๆฌกไธ็ๅคงๆ็็ ดๅ๏ผๅ ๆญคๅ ถๅๅฒๅปบ็ญๅคงๅคไฟๅญๅฎๅฅฝ๏ผไธ่ถ้ ่ฟไธญๅฟๅบ๏ผๅปบ็ญ่ถๅค่ใไฝไธๆณขๅ ฐๅคๆฐๅๅธไธๅ็ๆฏ๏ผๅ ๆ็งๅคซ็ๆงๅธๆฟๅ ๆฉๅทฒๆฏไบ็ๅๆณข่ญ็็ๆฝฎไนไธญใ[101]
ๆ่ฒ
็ผ่พๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆๆๅค่พพ24ๆ้ซ็ญๆ่ฒๆฉๆงๅ็บฆไบๅไธๅๅญฆ็[102]๏ผๅ ถไธญๆญทๅฒๆๆ ไน ็้ ็้ๅคงๅญธๆ็ซๆผ1364ๅนด[103]๏ผๆฏๆณข่ญ็ฌฌไธๆๅคงๅญธ๏ผ็บๅ ๆฌกๆผๆทๅ ๅธๆๆ ผๆฅ็ๅคงๅญธไนไธญๆญๅคๆ กใ
ๆ ้
็ผ่พ
ๅๅฅฝๅๅธ
็ผ่พๅ ๆ็งๅคซไธไธๅๅๅธ็ปไธบๅงๅฆนๅๅธๆๅฑๅผๅไฝ๏ผ[104][105][106]
ย ย ๅฐๅบฆๅฐผ่ฅฟไบ ๅณ้ฝ ๏ผ2000๏ผ[105]
ย ย ๆณๅ ๆณขๅฐๅค ๏ผ1993ๅนด๏ผ[104]
ย ย ๆฏๆดไผๅ
ๅธๆ่ฟชๆฏๆๅ[104][107]
ย ย ๅ็ๅฉ ๅธ่พพไฝฉๆฏ ๏ผ2005๏ผ[104]
ย ย ็พๅฝ ๅๆกฅ ๏ผ1989๏ผ[108]
ย ย ๅทด่ฅฟ ๅบ้่ๅทด ๏ผ1993๏ผ[106]
ย ย ็ง้ญฏ ๅบๆฏ็ง[104][109]
ย ย ่ฑๅ ็ฑไธๅ ก ๏ผ1995๏ผ[104][110][111]
ย ย ๆฉๆดๅฅ ้ๆฏ ๏ผ2004๏ผ[104]
ย ย ็พฉๅคงๅฉ ไฝ็ฝไผฆ่จ ๏ผ1992๏ผ[104]
ย ย ๅพทๅฝ ๆณๅ
ฐๅ
็ฆ ๏ผ1991๏ผ[104][112]
ย ย ็ๅ
ธ ๅฅๅพทๅ ก ๏ผ1990๏ผ[104]
ย ย ๅขจ่ฅฟๅฅ ็่พพๆๅๆ[113]
ย ย ๅฅฅๅฐๅฉ ๅ ๆฏๅธ้ฒๅ
๏ผ1998๏ผ[104]
ย ย ไนๅ
ๅ
ฐ ๅบ่พ
๏ผ1993๏ผ[105]
ย ย ๆบๅฉ ๆๅก้ท็บณ ๏ผ1995๏ผ[106]- ย ย ๅพทๅฝ ่ฑๆฏ้ก ๏ผ1995๏ผ[104][114]
ย ย ๆฏๅฉๆถ ้ฒๆฑถ ๏ผ1991๏ผ[105]- ย ย ไนๅ
ๅ
ฐ ๅฉๆฒๅคซ ๏ผ1995๏ผ[104]
- ย ย ๅฐๅบฆๅฐผ่ฅฟไบ ็็
๏ผ1997๏ผ[105]
- ย ย ็พฉๅคงๅฉ ็ฑณๅ
ฐ ๏ผ2003๏ผ[105][115]
- ย ย ๅพทๅฝ ็บฝไผฆๅ ก ๏ผ1991๏ผ[105]
- ย ย ๆณๅ ๅฅฅๅฐ่ฏ ๏ผ1992๏ผ[104]
- ย ย ๅ็ๅฉ ไฝฉๅฅ ๏ผ1998๏ผ[104]
ย ย ๅ็ๅคๅฐ ๅบๅค[106]- ย ย ็พๅฝ ็ฝๅๆฏ็น ๏ผ1973๏ผ[104][116]
- ย ย ๆฏๅฉๆถ ๅๆฅ ๏ผ1978๏ผ
- ย ย ็พฉๅคงๅฉ ็ฝ้ฉฌ[104]
- ย ย ็พๅฝ ๆง้ๅฑฑ ๏ผ2009๏ผ[104][117]
ย ย ่ฅฟ็ญ็ ๅก็ปดๅฉไบ ๏ผ2002๏ผ
ย ย ็ๅฃซ ็ดขๆดๅพๆฉ ๏ผ1990๏ผ
ย ย ๅ
็ฝๅฐไบ ๆฏๆฎๅฉ็น[117][118]
ย ย ๆ ผ้ฒๅไบ ็ฌฌๆฏๅฉๆฏ[104]
ย ย ไฟๅ ๅฉไบ ๅคง็นๅฐ่ฏบๆฒ ๏ผ1975๏ผ
ย ย ็ซ้ถๅฎ ็ปดๅฐ็บฝๆฏ[104]- ย ย ๅ
็ฝๅฐไบ ่จๆ ผๅๅธ ๏ผ1975๏ผ[118][119]
่จป้
็ผ่พ- ^ ๅ
ถไป่ช่จ๏ผ
- ๅพท่ช๏ผKrakau๏ผ [หkสaหkaสฬฏ] โ๏ผ๏ผๅ ๆ่
- ๆไธ่ช๏ผCracovia
- ็ๅ ่ญ่ช๏ผะัะฐะบัะฒ๏ผ็พ ้ฆฌๅ๏ผKrakiv, ็ผ้ณ๏ผ[krษkiuฬฏ]
ๅ่ๆ็ป
็ผ่พ- ่ ณๆณจ
- ^ 1.0 1.1 Powierzchnia i ludnoลฤ w przekroju terytorialnym w 2024 roku, Gลรณwny Urzฤ d Statystyczny, 2024-07-22, ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2024-12-04๏ผ ๏ผๆณขๅ ฐ่ฏญ๏ผ
- ^ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 The Municipality Of Krakรณw, Press Office. Our City. History of Krakรณw (archaeological findings). 2008 [2007-09-11]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ
ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2007-02-19๏ผ.
Marek Strzala. History of Krakรณw. Krakow Info. [2012-12-23]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2013-01-09๏ผ. - ^ 3.0 3.1 Jagiellonian University Centre for European Studies, "A Very Short History of Krakรณw", see: 1596 administrative capital, the tiny village of Warsaw. [2007-05-12]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2009-03-12๏ผ.
- ^ Plaszow Forced Labour Camp. ARC. 2005 [2014-11-14]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2004-04-29๏ผ.
- ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. Historic Centre of Krakรณw. whc.unesco.org. [2023-01-22]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2020-11-06๏ผ.
- ^ 2nd session of the Committee ๏ผ้กต้ขๅญๆกฃๅคไปฝ๏ผๅญไบไบ่็ฝๆกฃๆก้ฆ๏ผ UNESCO World Heritage Committee. Washington, D.C. 5โ8 September 1978.
- ^ Krakรณw's story: a Unesco City of Literature built out of books. 2013-11-14 [2016-11-26]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2016-10-14๏ผ.
- ^ Krakow to host next World Youth Day. Catholic News Agency (CNA). 2013-07-28 [2015-01-04]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2020-11-11๏ผ.
- ^ Malopolska region and the city of Krakow to host 3rd European Games in 2023. The European Games. [2022-09-25]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2020-10-20๏ผ.
- ^ The World According to GaWC 2020. GaWC โ Research Network. Globalization and World Cities. [2020-08-31]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2020-08-24๏ผ.
- ^ 10 amazing things you probably didn't know about Poland
ย . The Telegraph. [2016-11-13]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ
ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2022-01-11๏ผ.
- ^ Krakowskie ABC - Magiczny Krakรณw. www.krakow.pl. [2023-01-24]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2023-01-24๏ผ.
- ^ Krakowskie ABC โ Magiczny Krakรณw. www.krakow.pl. [2023-01-24]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2023-01-24๏ผ.
- ^ AGH, ACK Cyfronet. Uchwala - Biuletyn Informacji Publicznej Miasta Krakowa - BIP MK. www.bip.krakow.pl. [2018-06-11]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2020-12-15๏ผ.
- ^ Wawel Krakรณw. [2007-09-12]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2021-12-02๏ผ. Wawel Hill past and present
- ^ Magiczny Krakรณw. History of Krakรณw. Official website of the City of Krakรณw. 2012-05 [2012-12-23]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2020-11-23๏ผ.
- ^ Charles Cawley, Cawley, Charles, Poland. Mieszko I, 966โ992., Medieval Lands database, Foundation for Medieval Genealogy, 2012-08, [่ช่ฟฐๆฅๆบ][้่ฆ่ผไฝณๆฅๆบ] Medieval Lands Project, 2006. Cite #51: Dziฤcioล, Witold (1963) The Origins of Poland (Veritas, London), p. 148. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
- ^ Krystyna and Frank Van Dongen. The royal castle in Krakรณw. [2011-05-19]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2011-07-24๏ผ.
- ^ Stanisลaw Rosik and Przemysลaw Urbaลczyk. Poland โ Ecclesiastical organisation. [2011-05-19]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2012-07-07๏ผ.
- ^ J.J. Saunders, The History of the Mongol Conquests, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971), 85.
- ^ Polska Agencja Prasowa. Nauka w Polsce (June 2007), Rocznica lokacji Krakowa (750-year anniversary of the Krakรณw Location Act). See also: full text of Krakรณw Location Act in Polish ๏ผ้กต้ขๅญๆกฃๅคไปฝ๏ผๅญไบไบ่็ฝๆกฃๆก้ฆ๏ผ, translated from Latin by Boลผena Wyrozumska (article by Janusz Kฤdracki). ไบ่็ฝๆกฃๆก้ฆ็ๅญๆช๏ผๅญๆกฃๆฅๆ2013-05-08. Retrieved 2012-12-21.
- ^ Marek Strzala, Krakow's oldest known City Charter dates back to 1257. [2007-05-12]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2023-01-28๏ผ.
- ^ Edmund Kolodziejczyk. Poland. Geography, political history and the position of the church. Catholic Encyclopedia. [2011-05-19]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ
ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2006-03-16๏ผ.
For the Overview of historic events see: Tartar raids
- ^ Stefan ลwiszczowski, Miasto Kazimierz pod Krakowem, Krakรณw 1981, s.52, ISBNย 83-08-00624-8.
- ^ Sharon & Peter Pfeiffer, "Krakow. A brief history." The establishment of a university. [2007-05-12]. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2007-04-16๏ผ.
- ^ Norman Davies. God's Playground A History of Poland Volume 1: The Origins to 1795. Oxford University Press. 2005: 65.
- ^ Hanseatic towns: Krakรณw ไบ่็ฝๆกฃๆก้ฆ็ๅญๆช๏ผๅญๆกฃๆฅๆ2007-08-13., Polonia Online, Retrieved on 2007-09-25.
- ^ Sobecki, Sebastian. Cracow, Europe: A Literary History, 1348โ1418, ed. David Wallace. Oxford University Press. 2016: 551โ65 [2016-06-02]. ISBNย 978-0-19-873535-9. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2016-12-20๏ผ.
- ^ Davies, Norman. God's Playground: A History of Poland. Oxford University Press. 2005 [2008-01-21]. ISBNย 978-0-19-925339-5. ๏ผๅๅงๅ ๅฎนๅญๆกฃไบ2023-01-30๏ผ.p.118. See vol.1, chapter 5.
- ^ Michael J. Mikoล, Polish Renaissance Literature: An Anthology. Ed. Michael J. Mikoล. Columbus, Ohio/Bloomington, Indiana: Slavica Publishers. 1995. ISBNย 978-0-89357-257-0 First chapters online ไบ่็ฝๆกฃๆก้ฆ็ๅญๆช๏ผๅญๆกฃๆฅๆ2007-09-27., Retrieved on 2007-09-25
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- Martin C. Dean; Mel Hecker; Geoffrey P. Megargee. Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933โ1945. II โ Ghettos in German-Occupied Eastern Europe. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum / Indiana University Press. 2012. ISBNย 978-0-253-35599-7.
- Jane Hardy, Al Rainnie, Restructuring Krakow: Desperately Seeking Capitalism. Published 1996 by Mansell Publishing, 285 pages. Business, economics, finance. ISBNย 0-7201-2231-7.
- Edward Hartwig, Krakรณw, with Jerzy Broszkiewicz (contributor). Published 1980, by Sport i Turystyka, 239 pages. ISBNย 83-217-2321-7.
- Bolesลaw T. ลaszewski, Krakรณw: karta z dziejรณw dwudziestolecia. Published 1985, by Bicentennial Pub. Corp. (original from the University of Michigan), 132 pages. ISBNย 0-912757-08-6
- Longerich, Peter. Holocaust โ The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford University Press. 2010. ISBNย 978-019280436-5.
- Joanna Markin, Bogumiลa Gnypowa, Krakรณw: The Guide. Published 1996 by Pascal Publishing, 342 pages. ISBNย 83-87037-28-1.
- Tim Pepper, Andrew Beattie, Krakow. Published 2007 by Hunter Pub Inc., 160 pages. ISBNย 1-84306-308-5. The book includes description of public art galleries and museums.
- Scott Simpson, Krakow. Published 2003 by Thomas Cook Publishing, 192 pages. Transport, geography, sightseeing, history, and culture. Includes weblinks CD. ISBNย 1-84157-187-3.
- Simpson, Scott; Zukowska, Helena. Travellers Krakรณw, 3rd: Guides to Destinations Worldwide Fourth. Peterborough, United Kingdom: Thomas Cook Publishing. 2008-04-15 [2010-03-11]. ISBNย 978-1-84157-901-6.[ๅคฑๆ้ฃ็ต]
- Dorota Wฤ sik, Emma Roper-Evans, Krakow. Published 2002 by Somerset. Cultural guidebook series, 160 pages. ISBNย 963-00-5930-4.
- Richard Watkins, Best of Krakรณw, Published 2006, by Lonely Planet, 64 pages, complemented by fold-out maps. ISBNย 1-74104-822-2.
ๅค้จ้ฃ็ต
็ผ่พ- Magiczny Krakow๏ผ้กต้ขๅญๆกฃๅคไปฝ๏ผๅญไบไบ่็ฝๆกฃๆก้ฆ๏ผ - ๅ ๆ็งๅคซๅธๆฟๅบๅฎๆน็ฝ็ซ
- Krakow๏ผ้กต้ขๅญๆกฃๅคไปฝ๏ผๅญไบไบ่็ฝๆกฃๆก้ฆ๏ผ - ๅ ๆ็งๅคซ้ๅฎๆน็ฝ็ซ
- Krakow Travel Photos ๏ผ้กต้ขๅญๆกฃๅคไปฝ๏ผๅญไบไบ่็ฝๆกฃๆก้ฆ๏ผ - ๅ ๆ็งๅคซๆ ๆธธ็บชๅฎ
