| ใใใใใผใฐๅธ City of Pittsburgh | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 ใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ | |||||
| |||||
| ๆ็งฐย : Steel City ๏ผ้้ผใฎ่ก๏ผ | |||||
| ๆจ่ชย : "Benigno Numine ๏ผๆ ๅใฎ็ฅใจๅ ฑใซ๏ผ" | |||||
| ไฝ็ฝฎ | |||||
 ๅทฆ: ใใณใทใซใใใขๅทใซใใใ ใขใฌใฒใใผ้กใฎไฝ็ฝฎ ๅณ: ใขใฌใฒใใผ้กใซใใใใใใใใผใฐใฎๅธๅ | |||||
| ไฝ็ฝฎ | |||||
  ใใใใใผใฐ (ใขใกใชใซๅ่กๅฝ)  ใใใใใผใฐ (ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท) | |||||
| |||||
| ๅบงๆจย : ๅ็ทฏ40ๅบฆ26ๅ30็ง ่ฅฟ็ต80ๅบฆ0ๅ0็ง๏ปฟ / ๏ปฟๅ็ทฏ40.44167ๅบฆ ่ฅฟ็ต80.00000ๅบฆ | |||||
| ๆญดๅฒ | |||||
| ๅต่จญ | 1758ๅนด11ๆ27ๆฅ | ||||
| ่กๆฟ | |||||
| ๅฝ |  ใขใกใชใซๅ่กๅฝ
| ||||
| ย ๅท |  ย ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท
| ||||
| ย ้ก |  ใขใฌใฒใใผ้ก
| ||||
| ย ๅธ | ใใใใใผใฐๅธ | ||||
| ๅธ้ท | ใณใผใชใผใปใชใณใใผ๏ผๆฐไธปๅ ๏ผ | ||||
| ๅฐ็ | |||||
| ้ข็ฉ | ย | ||||
| ย ย ๅธๅ | 151.1 km2 (58.3 mi2) | ||||
| ย ย ย ย ้ธไธ | ย ย 143.9 km2 (55.5 mi2) | ||||
| ย ย ย ย ๆฐด้ข | ย ย 7.1 km2 (2.8 mi2) | ||||
| ย ย ้ฝๅธๅ | 13,839 km2 (5,343 mi2) | ||||
| ๆจ้ซ | 216-416 m (709-1,364 ft) | ||||
| ไบบๅฃ | |||||
| ไบบๅฃ | ๏ผ2020ๅนด็พๅจ๏ผ | ||||
| ย ย ๅธๅ | 302,971ไบบ | ||||
| ย ย ย ย ไบบๅฃๅฏๅบฆ | ย ย 2,105.4ไบบ/km2๏ผ5,458.9ไบบ/mi2๏ผ | ||||
| ย ย ้ฝๅธๅ | 2,370,930ไบบ | ||||
| ใใฎไป | |||||
| ็ญๆๅธฏ | ๆฑ้จๆจๆบๆ (UTC-5) | ||||
| ๅคๆ้ | ๆฑ้จๅคๆ้ (UTC-4) | ||||
| ๅ ฌๅผใฆใงใใตใคใย : http://www.city.pittsburgh.pa.us | |||||
ใใใใใผใฐ๏ผ่ฑ่ช: Pittsburgh๏ผใฏใใขใกใชใซๅ่กๅฝใฎใใณใทใซใใใขๅทๅ่ฅฟ้จใซไฝ็ฝฎใใ้ฝๅธใใขใชใฒใใผๅฐๅฐไธใใขใฌใฒใใผๅทใจใขใใณใฌใใฉๅทใๅๆตใใใชใใคใชๅทใฎ่ตท็นใจใชใฃใฆใใๅฐ็นใไธญๅฟใซๅบใใฃใฆใใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฏใใฎๅๆต็น่ฟใใฎ2ใคใฎๅทใซๆใพใใๅฐๅธฏใซๅบใใใใดใผใซใใณใปใใฉใคใขใณใฐใซใจๅผใฐใใฆใใใๅธๅไบบๅฃใฏ302,971ไบบ๏ผ2020ๅนดๅฝๅข่ชฟๆป๏ผ[1]ใใขใฌใฒใใผ้กใไธญๅฟใซ7้กใซใพใใใใใใใใผใฐ้ฝๅธๅใฏ2,356,285ไบบใใใฎ้ฝๅธๅใซใชใใคใชๅทในใใฅใผใใณใใซใฎ้ฝๅธๅใใใใณๅจ่พบใฎ2ใคใฎๅฐ้ฝๅธๅใๅ ใใๅบๅ้ฝๅธๅใฏ2,657,149ไบบ๏ผใใใใ2020ๅนดๅฝๅข่ชฟๆป๏ผ[2]ใฎไบบๅฃใๆฑใใฆใใใ
ใใใใใผใฐใจใใๅฐๅใฏใใใฌใณใใปใคใณใใฃใขใณๆฆไบใฎ้ใซใใฎๅฐใซๅปบใฆใใใฆใใใใฉใณใน่ปใฎใใฅใฑใคใณ็ ฆใซ้ฒๆปใใใใฉใณใน่ปใๆค้ใซ่ฟฝใ่พผใใ ใคใฎใชใน่ปใฎใธใงใณใปใใฉใผใใบๅฐ่ปใใฆใฃใชใขใ ใปใใใ๏ผๅคงใใใ๏ผใซใกใชใใง1758ๅนดใซใคใใใใฎใงใใฃใ[ๆณจ้ 1][3]ใใขใกใชใซ็ฌ็ซๆฆไบไธญใใใฃใฉใใซใใฃใขใใใ่ฅฟใธๅฑใใๅๆณใฎ้ตไพฟ่ทฏ็ทใฏใใฎใใใใใผใฐใ้ใใใฎใ ใใงใใฃใ[4]ใ1794ๅนดใซๆญฃๅผใช็บใจใชใใ1816ๅนดใซๅธๅถใๆฝ่กใใ[5]ใๅธๆใปๅธ็ซ ใฏๅธใฎ็บ่ถณใพใงใซใใณใทใซใใใขใปใใใใๆตๅ ฅใๅฝฑ้ฟๅใใใฃใใใจใ็คบๅใใฆใใใ
ๅฐๅ ใฎNFLใใผใ ใในใใฃใผใฉใผใบใใฎๅใซใ่ฆใใใใใใซใใใคใฆใฏ้้ผ็็ฃใฎไธญๅฟๅฐใจใใฆๆ ใใใ1970ๅนดไปฃใซใชใคใซใทใงใใฏใ1980ๅนดไปฃไธญ็คใซๅฎไพกใช่ผธๅ ฅ้้ผใใใใใใๅฐๅใฎ้้ผๆฅญใ่กฐ้ใใใใใกใญใณ่ฒก้ฅใจใญใใฏใใงใฉใผๅฎถใฏ้้ผๆฅญใซ่ฆๅใใใคใใๅฐๅใฎใใคใใฏ็ฃๆฅญใปไฟ้บใปๆ่ฒใป้่ใซๆ่ณใใใใใใฎ็ต้จใฏ2007ๅนดใซๅงใพใฃใใตใใใฉใคใ ใญใผใณๅ้กใไธ็้่ๅฑๆฉใงใ็ใใใๅ จ็ฑณใฎใฟใชใใๅ จไธ็ใๅทปใ่พผใใ ใใฎ็ตๆธๅฑๆฉใฎๆไธญใซใใฃใฆใใใใใใใผใฐใฎไฝๅฎ ๅธๅ ดใฏๆฏ่ผ็ๅฎๅฎใใ2008ๅนดใซๅ ฅใฃใฆใใใใใใผใฐใซใใใๆฑไบบใฏๅขๅ ใใฆใใ[6]ใใใใใๅ็ใฎๆๅใฏใใใฉใฏใปใชใใใ2009ๅนด9ๆใซ้ๅฌใใใ็ฌฌ3ๅ20ใๅฝใปๅฐๅ้ฆ่ณไผๅใฎ้ๅฌๅฐใจใใฆใใใใใผใฐใ้ธใใ ่ฆ็ด ใจใชใฃใ[7][8]ใ
ใใใใใผใฐใฏๅญฆ่ก้ฝๅธใงใใใใใซใผใใฎใผใกใญใณๅคงๅญฆใปใใฅใฑใคใณๅคงๅญฆใปใใใใใผใฐๅคงๅญฆใชใฉใๅคๆฐใฎๅคงๅญฆใๅธๅ ใใใณ้ฝๅธๅๅ ใซใญใฃใณใในใ็ฝฎใใใซใผใใฎใผใกใญใณๅคงๅญฆใจใใใใใผใฐๅคงๅญฆใใญใฃใณใในใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใฏใ้ซ็ญๆ่ฒใป็ ็ฉถๆฉ้ขใๆๅๆฝ่จญใ็นใซ้ไธญใใฆใใใ
ๆญดๅฒ
็ทจ้ๅๆ
็ทจ้1669ๅนดใซใใฉใณในไบบๆขๆคๅฎถใฎใญใใซใใปใใปใฉใปใตใผใซใฏใใฑใใใฏใใใชใณใฟใชใชๆนใไธใใใชใใคใชๅทใไธใๆขๆคใฎๆไธญใซใใจใผใญใใไบบใจใใฆใฏๅใใฆใใฎๅฐใซ่ถณใ่ธใฟๅ ฅใใ[9]ใ1717ๅนดใใจใผใญใใไบบๅไบบใฏใชใใคใชๅทใปใขใฌใฒใใผๅทใปใขใใณใฌใใผใฉๅทใฎๆตๅใซไบคๆๆใจๅ ฅๆคๅฐใๅปบ่จญใใใใใใใผใฐใฎๆญดๅฒใๅงใพใฃใ[10]ใ
1749ๅนดใซใฑใใใฏใซ้ง็ใใฆใใใใฉใณใน่ปใฏใใซใใใฎๆคๆฐๅฐใจใใฉใณใน้ ใซใคใธใขใใจใๅทใง็ตใถใใจใ็ใฃใฆใขใฌใฒใใผๅทใไธใใใขใใณใฌใใฉๅทใจใฎๅๆต็นใซๅฝใใใใฎๅฐใซ้ฒ่ปใใ[10]ใใใผใธใใขๆคๆฐๅฐ็ท็ฃใๅใใฆใใใคใฎใชในไบบใฎใญใใผใใปใใฃใณใฆใฃใใซใฏใใใฉใณใน่ปใใใฎๅฐใใๆค้ใใใใใซ่ญฆๅใใใใใใธใงใผใธใปใฏใทใณใใณๅฐไฝใใใฎๅฐใซๆดพ้ฃใใใ1753ๅนดใใ็ฟ1754ๅนดใซใใใฆใใคใฎใชในใฏใใฎๅฐใซใใชใณในใปใธใงใผใธ็ ฆใ็ช่ฒซใงๅปบใฆใใใใใฉใณใน่ปใฏใใฎ็ ฆใซ้ฒๆปใใฆใคใฎใชในไบบใๆค้ใใใใใฎ่ทกๅฐใซใใฅใฑใคใณ็ ฆใๅปบใฆใใใใใฆใใฉใณในใฏ1669ๅนดใฎใฉใปใตใผใซใซใใใใฎๅฐใฎ็บ่ฆใๅผใๅใใซๅบใใฆใใชใใคใชๅทๆตๅใฎๆฏ้ ๆจฉใไธปๅผตใใใจใใใฎๆฏ้ ๆจฉใใใใฃใฆใคใฎใชในใจใใฉใณในใจใฎ้ใงใใฌใณใใปใคใณใใฃใขใณๆฆไบใๅ็บใใใใจใใฏใผใใปใใฉใใใฏๅฐ่ปใซใใ1ๅบฆ็ฎใฎใใฅใฑใคใณ็ ฆ้ฒๆป๏ผใขใใณใฌใใคใฉใฎๆฆใ๏ผใฏๅคฑๆใซ็ตใใฃใใใ1758ๅนดใซ่กใใใใธใงใณใปใใฉใผใใบๅฐ่ปใซใใ2ๅบฆ็ฎใฎ้ฒๆปใฏๆๅใใใใฉใณใน่ปใใใฅใฑใคใณ็ ฆใใๆค้ใใใ็ ฆใ็ ดๅฃใใใใใใฎๅพใใฉใผใใบใฏใใฎๅฐใซใฆใฃใชใขใ ใปใใใใซใกใชใใงใใใ็ ฆใๅปบใฆใใใจใๅฝใใใใฎๅ ฅๆคๅฐใใใใใใญใผใจๅไปใใ[11]ใใใฎใใใใใญใผใจใใๅฐๅใฏใใใฎๅพ1794ๅนดใซใใใใใผใฐใซ็ธฎใใใใ[12]ใ
1763ๅนดใซๅ็บใใใใณใใฃใขใใฏๆฆไบใฎๆไธญใซใใใ็ ฆใฏใชใใคใชๅทๆตๅใไบๅคงๆนๅจ่พบใฎใใคใใฃใใปใขใกใชใซใณใฎ้จๆใซใใฃใฆ2ใถๆ้ใซใใใฃใฆๅ ๅฒใใใใใใณใชใผใปใใผใฑใใๅคงไฝใฏใใใทใผใฉใณใฎๆฆใใงใใคใใฃใใปใขใกใชใซใณ่ปใ็ ดใใใใใ็ ฆใ้ๆพใใใ1768ๅนดใซใฏในใฟใณใฆใฃใใฏใน็ ฆๆก็ดใ็ท ็ตใใใใคใญใณใค้ฃ้ฆใฎ้ ๅใใขใกใชใซๅ่กๅฝใซๅฒ่ญฒใใใ็พๅจใฎใใใใใผใฐๅธๅใฎใใกใใใผในใปใตใคใใ้คใๅฐๅใใใณใทใซใใใขใซ็ทจๅ ฅใใใใ1784ๅนดใซใฏ2ๅบฆ็ฎใฎในใฟใณใฆใฃใใฏใน็ ฆๆก็ดใ็ท ็ตใใใ็พๅจใฎใใผในใปใตใคใใๅซใใใชใใคใชๅทไปฅๅใฎๅฐๅใใใใณใขใซใฒใคใใผๅทๆตๅใใใณใทใซใใใขใซ็ทจๅ ฅใใใใไธๆนใใใฎๅฐใฏๆคๆฐๅฐๆไปฃใใใใใผใธใใขใจใฎ้ใงๅทๅข็ทใใใใฃใฆไฟไบใซใชใฃใฆใใใใ1780ๅนดใซไธกๅทใฎๅๆใซใใใใกใคใฝใณ๏ผใใฃใฏใฝใณ็ทใ่ฅฟๆนใธๅปถ้ทใใใใจใงๆฑบ็ใใใใใใใใผใฐใฏ1785ๅนดใซใใณใทใซใใใขๅทใฎๆๆใจใชใฃใใใใฎๅพ1794ๅนดใซใฏใใใใใผใฐใๆญฃๅผใซใใณใทใซใใใขๅทใฎ้กๅบใจใชใ[13]ใ1816ๅนดใซใฏๅธใซๆๆ ผใใใ
็ฃๆฅญใฎ็บๅฑ
็ทจ้
็ฌ็ซๆฆไบใ็ตใใใจใใใใใใผใฐใซใฏใใพใใพใช็ฃๆฅญใ็บๅฑใใฆใใฃใใใใใใใผใฐใซใใใๅๆใฎ็ฃๆฅญใฏใใชใใคใช้ ๅใซ่นใงๅ ฅใใใจใใๅ ฅๆค่ ใใฟใผใฒใใใซใใ้ ่นๆฅญใงใใฃใใ18ไธ็ดๆซใซใฏใใใใใใผใฐใซใฏใฌใฉใน็ฃๆฅญใ่ใฃใใ1815ๅนด้ ใซใฏใใใใใใผใฐใฏ้ใ็้ฎใ้ซใใใใณใฌใฉใน่ฃฝๅใฎไธๅคง็็ฃๅฐใจใชใฃใฆใใใ1830ๅนดไปฃใซใฏใใฆใงใผใซใบใฎใกใซในใฃใซใปใใฃใใใดใฃใซใง่ตทใใๆดๅใซใใใๅๅฐใฎ้้ผๅดๅ่ ใๅคง้ใซใใใใใผใฐใซ็งปๅ ฅใใฆใใใ1857ๅนด้ ใซใฏใใใใใใผใฐใซใฏ1,000ๆฃใฎๅทฅๅ ดใๅปบใกไธฆใณใๅนด้2200ไธใใใทใงใซใฎ็ณ็ญใๆถ่ฒปใใฆใใใ
ๅๅๆฆไบใฏ้ใ่ป็จๅใฎ้่ฆใ็ใฟใใใใใใผใฐใฎๅฐๅ็ตๆธใๆฝคใใใ1875ๅนดใซใฏใใขใณใใชใฅใผใปใซใผใใฎใผใ่ฟ้ใฎใใผในใปใใฉใใใฏ็บใซใจใใฌใผใปใใ ใฝใณ้ๅทฅๆใๅต่จญใใใใใใใผใฐๅฐๅใซใใใ้ผใฎ็็ฃใๅงใพใฃใใใใฎ้ๅทฅๆใฏๅพใซใซใผใใฎใผใปในใใผใซใปใซใณใใใผ๏ผCarnegie Steel Company๏ผใจใชใฃใใใซใผใใฎใผใปในใใผใซใฏใใณใชใผใปใใใปใใผใฎ็บๆใใ้ผใฎ็ฒพ้ฌๆณใๅฐๅ ฅใใใใจใซใใฃใฆๆ้ทใใใ1901ๅนดใใซใผใใฎใผใปในใใผใซใฏใใงใใฉใซใปในใใผใซใปใซใณใใใผใใใใณใใทใงใใซใปในใใผใซใปใซใณใใใผใจ็ตฑๅใใใUSในใใผใซใ่จญ็ซใใใใๅ จ็ฑณๆๅคงใฎ้้ผไผ็คพใจใชใฃใUSในใใผใซใฎๆฌ็คพใฏใใใใใผใฐใซ็ฝฎใใใใพใใธใงใผใณใบใปใขใณใใปใญใใฏใชใณใปในใใผใซใชใฉใใใใ้้ผๆฅญ็ใซใใใใใใใใผใฐใฎๅฐไฝใ็ขบ็ซใใใใ1910ๅนดไปฃใซใฏใๅ จ็ฑณใง็็ฃใใใ้้ผใฎ1/3ใใ1/2ใใใใใใผใฐใง็็ฃใใใฆใใใ
็ฃๆฅญใฎ็บๅฑใซไผดใฃใฆไบบๅฃใๆฅๅขใใใ1910ๅนดใซใฏใใใใใใผใฐใฏไบบๅฃ533,905ไบบใๆฑใใใใฅใผใจใผใฏ๏ผ4,766,883ไบบ๏ผใใทใซใด๏ผ2,185,283ไบบ๏ผใใใฃใฉใใซใใฃใข๏ผ1,549,008ไบบ๏ผใใปใณใใซใคใน๏ผ687,029ไบบ๏ผใใในใใณ๏ผ670,585ไบบ๏ผใใฏใชใผใใฉใณใ๏ผ560,663ไบบ๏ผใใใซใใขใข๏ผ558,485ไบบ๏ผใซๆฌกใๅ จ็ฑณ็ฌฌ8ใฎ้ฝๅธใซๆ้ทใใฆใใ[15]ใ50ไธไบบใ่ถ ใใไฝๆฐใฎๅคใใฏใใจใชในๅณถใ้ใฃใฆ็งปๅ ฅใใฆใใใจใผใญใใไบบ็งปๆฐใงใใฃใใ
1913ๅนด11ๆ1ๆฅใใขใกใชใซๅใฎใฌใฝใชใณในใฟใณใใๅธๅ ใงๅถๆฅญใ้ๅง[16]ใใขใผใฟใชใผใผใทใงใณใ็บ้ใใๅฅๆฉใจใชใฃใใ
ใใทใผใณๆฟๆฒปใจๅธๆฟๆน้ฉ
็ทจ้็ฃๆฅญใฎ็บใจใใฆๆฅ้ใซ็บๅฑใใใใใใใผใฐใงใฏใๅฎๆฅญ็ใฎๆๅฐ่ ใใใฎใพใพๆฟๆฒปใฎๆๅฐ่ ใงใใใ้ธๅบใปไปปๅฝใใใๅนน้จๅ ฌๅๅกใใพใ่ชๅใฎไบๆฅญใๆฑใใฆใใใๅธใฎๅ ฌๅ ฑๆ่ณใฏๅฝผใใฎไบๆฅญใซไพฟๅฎใๅณใใใใซๅฎๆฝใใใฆใใ[17]ใ
ใขใกใชใซๅ่กๅฝใฎ่ซธ้ฝๅธใงใฏใ19ไธ็ดๅพๅใซไบบๅฃใๅขใใฆๅดๅ่ ใฎ็ฅจใ้ธๆใซไธๅฏๆฌ ใซใชใใจใไธญใปไธๅฑคใฎๅธๆฐใซๅๅฅ็ใชไพฟๅฎใใฏใใฃใฆ้็ฅจใใใใใๅธๆฟๆฏ้ ใฎใใใซ็จใใใใทใผใณใ็ปๅ ดใใใใใใใใผใฐใฎใใทใผใณใฏใๅธ่ทๅกใใ้ ญ่งใ็พใใใฏใชในใใใกใผใปใใฎใผใจใๅดๅ่ ใใๅฎๆฅญๅฎถใซๆใไธใใฃใใฆใฃใชใขใ ใปใใชใณใ1880ๅนดใซ็ฏใใๅ ฑๅๅ ใฎใใฎใผใปใใชใณใปใชใณใฐใจๅผใฐใใใใฎใงใ1901ๅนดใพใงใใใใใผใฐใฎๆฟๆฒปใๅฎๅ จใซๆฏ้ ใใใใใฎใผใจใใชใณใฏ่ชใใฏๅบๆฌ็ใซๅ ฌ่ทใซใคใใใ่ฆชๆใปๅไบบใป้จไธใใกใๅธ่ญฐไผ่ญฐๅกใซๅฝ้ธใใใ่ญฐๅกใ้ใใฆๆใใฎใพใพใซๅนน้จ่ทๅกใฎไปปๅฝใ่กใชใฃใใๅฎๆฝใใใๅธใฎๆฟ็ญใๅ ฌๅ ฑไบๆฅญใฏใใชใณใฎไผๆฅญใซๅฉ็ใใใใใใใใซใใใ[18]ใ
ใใทใผใณๆฏ้ ใฏๅฉ็่ชๅฐใซใใฃใฆไธญใปไธๅฑคใฎๅคง่กใฎๆฏๆใ็ฒๅพใใใใฎใงใใฃใใใ่ ๆใใๅฉ็ใๅพใชใไผๆฅญใฎ็ตๅถ่ ใใๅปๅธซใปๅผ่ญทๅฃซใชใฉใฎๅฐ้่ทใฏไธๆบใๆฑใใฆใใ[19]ใๅฝผใใฏ19ไธ็ดๆซใใๅธๆฟๆน้ฉ้ๅใ่ตทใใใฆใใใทใผใณใฎ่ ๆใ่ฟฝๅใใๅธๆฐใชใผใฐใ็ตๆใใใ1899ๅนดใซใใทใผใณใใใฎ้ ๅ่ ใๅธๆฐๅ ใไฝใฃใฆๅธๆฐใชใผใฐใจๆใ็ตใณใ1901ๅนดใซใใฎใผใๆญปใฌใจใใใฎใผใปใใชใณใปใชใณใฐใฏ้ธๆใงๆใใๆฅ้ใซๅดฉๅฃใใ[20]ใ1905ๅนดใซใฏๆฐไธปๅ ใฎๅธๆฟๆน้ฉๆดพใธใงใผใธใปใฐใบใญใผใๅธ้ทใซๅฝ้ธใใใๅธๆฟๆน้ฉใฏๅฟ ใใใๅธๆฐๅๅ ใใใชใใใใฎใงใฏใชใใใใใ้ใซใๅๅ ใฎๆฉไผใ้ฎๆญใใใใจใงใใทใผใณใ่งฃไฝใใ้ๆจฉ็ใปๅฐ้็ใชๅธๆฟใไฝใๆนๅใซ้ฒใใงใใฃใ[21]ใ
่กฐ้ใจๅ็
็ทจ้
็ฌฌไบๆฌกไธ็ๅคงๆฆไธญใซใฏใใใใใใผใฐใงใฏ9500ไธใใณใใฎ้้ผใ็็ฃใใใ[11]ใใใใใใใฎ้ ใซใชใใจใ็ณ็ญใ็ใใใใใ้้ผใ็็ฃใใใใใใฎใซไผดใๅคงๆฐๆฑๆใซใใใในใขใใฐใ็บ็ใใใใใซใชใฃใใๅคงๆฐๆฑๆ่ชไฝใฏ1868ๅนดใซใในใใณใฎไฝๅฎถใปๆผซ็ปๅฎถใธใงใผใ ใบใปใใผใใณใใใใใใผใฐใhell with the lid off๏ผๆใใใใใฎใฎใใใฃใใใ่ฆใใใใๅฐ็๏ผใจ่ฉใใ[22]ใใใซๆขใซ็พใใฆใใใใใใใใใใ80ๅนด็ตใฃใฆ้กๅจๅใใๅฝขใซใชใฃใใ1960ๅนดไปฃใซๅ ฅใฃใฆใใใใใใผใฐใฎ็ฃๆฅญใฏ็บๅฑใ็ถใใฆใใใใ1970ๅนดไปฃใซๅ ฅใใจใๅฐๅ ้้ผๆฅญใฏ่กฐ้ใซ่ปขใใใๅทฅๅ ดใฏ็ธๆฌกใใง้้ใซ่ฟฝใ่พผใพใใ่กใซใฏๅคง้ใฎๅคฑๆฅญ่ ใใใตใใใใใใ1980ๅนดไปฃใซๅ ฅใใจใใใใใใผใฐใฏ้้ผๆฅญใซไพๅญใใฆใใๅพๅใฎ็ฃๆฅญๆง้ ใใ่ฑๅดใใใใคใใฏใไฟ้บใๆ่ฒใ้่ใใตใผใในๆฅญใไธญๅฟใจใใๅฐๅ็ตๆธใธใจ็งป่กใใใใจใซใใใๆดปๆฐใๅใๆปใใใ
ใใใใฆใใใใใผใฐใฏๅ็ใ้ใใใ2007ๅนดใซๅงใพใฃใใตใใใฉใคใ ใญใผใณๅ้กใซ็ซฏใ็บใใใ2000ๅนดไปฃๅพๆใฎไธ็็ใช้่ๅฑๆฉใจใใฎๅพใฎไธๆณใฎไธญใซใใใฆใใใใใใใผใฐใงใฏ้็จใไฝๅฎ ไพกๆ ผใใขใกใชใซๅ่กๅฝๅ ใฎไปๅฐๅใซๆฏ่ผใใฆๅฎๅฎใใๅฐๅ็ตๆธใฎๅผทใใ่ฆใไปใใใ2009ๅนด5ๆใใใฉใฏใปใชใใใฏ็ฌฌ3ๅ20ใๅฝใปๅฐๅ้ฆ่ณไผๅใฎ้ๅฌ็ฎ็ใงใใใ้่ใจไธ็็ตๆธใฎใๅ็ใใจใใใคใกใผใธใๅผท่ชฟใใใใใๅฝๅใฏใใฅใผใจใผใฏใง้ใใใไบๅฎใซใชใฃใฆใใใใฎไผๅใฎ้ๅฌๅฐใใๅ็ใฎๆๅไฝ้จใๆใคใใใใใผใฐใซๅคๆดใใ[7]ใใG20ใใใใใผใฐใปใตใใใใใจใๅผใฐใใใใฎไผๅใฏใ2009ๅนด9ๆ24ๆฅใป25ๆฅใซใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎใใคใดใฃใใใปLใปใญใผใฌใณในใปใณใณใใณใทใงใณใปใปใณใฟใผใง้ๅฌใใใใใใใใ1950ๅนดใฎใใผใฏๆใซ676,806ไบบใๆฐใใๅ จ็ฑณ12ไฝใฎ่ฆๆจก[23]ใงใใฃใไบบๅฃใฏใใฎๅพๆฟๆธใใ2020ๅนดใซใฏใใผใฏๆใฎๅๅไปฅไธใ302,971ไบบ๏ผๅ จ็ฑณ68ไฝ๏ผใซใพใงๆธใฃใ[1]ใ
ๅฐ็
็ทจ้ใใใใใผใฐใฏๅ็ทฏ40ๅบฆ26ๅ30็ง ่ฅฟ็ต80ๅบฆ0ๅ0็ง๏ปฟ / ๏ปฟๅ็ทฏ40.44167ๅบฆ ่ฅฟ็ต80.00000ๅบฆใซไฝ็ฝฎใใฆใใใๅธใฏใใฃใฉใใซใใฃใขใฎ่ฅฟ็ด490kmใใฏใชใผใใฉใณใใฎๅๆฑ็ด200kmใซไฝ็ฝฎใใฆใใใใขใกใชใซๅ่กๅฝ็ตฑ่จๅฑใซใใใจใใใใใใผใฐๅธใฏ็ท้ข็ฉ151.1kmยฒ๏ผ58.3miยฒ๏ผใงใใใใใฎใใก143.9kmยฒ๏ผ55.5miยฒ๏ผใ้ธๅฐใง7.1kmยฒ๏ผ2.8miยฒ๏ผใๆฐดๅใงใใใ็ท้ข็ฉใฎ4.75%ใๆฐดๅใจใชใฃใฆใใใ
ๅฐๅฝข
็ทจ้
ใใใใใผใฐใฏใขใฌใฒใใผๅฐๅฐไธใๅๆฑใใๆตใใฆใใใขใฌใฒใใผๅทใจๅๆฑใใๆตใใฆใใใขใใณใฌใใฉๅทใๅๆตใใใชใใคใชๅทใจใชใๅฐ็นใซไฝ็ฝฎใใฆใใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฏๅๆต็น่ฟใใใขใฌใฒใคใใผๅทใจใขใใณใฌใใฉใฉๅทใซๆใพใใใใดใผใซใใณใปใใฉใคใขใณใฐใซใใจๅผใฐใใๅฐๅใซๅฝขๆใใใฆใใใๅๆต็นใฏใใคใณใๅท็ซๅ ฌๅใจใชใฃใฆใใใๅใซใใถใปใใคใณใใ๏ผThe Point๏ผใจๅผใฐใใใใจใใใใ
ๅใใขใซใฒใคใใผๅฐๅฐไธใซไฝ็ฝฎใใ้ฝๅธใงใใๆ็ตๆฐทๆใซใใใฆๆฐทๆฒณใซ่ฆใใใไพต้ฃใใใๅฐๅใซ็ซๅฐใใใขใฏใญใณใใคใณใฐในใฟใฆใณใฎๅฐๅฝขใๆฏ่ผ็ใชใ ใใใงใใใฎใซๅฏพใใๆฐทๆฒณใซ่ฆใใใใๆตธ้ฃใๅใใฆใใชใใฃใๅฐๅใซ็ซๅฐใใใใใใใผใฐใฎๅฐๅฝขใฏ่ตทไผใซๅฏใใงใใใ็นใซใขใใณใฌใใคใฉๅทใฎๅๅฒธใฏๅทใฎ่ฟใใพใงๆฅๅณปใชๅดใ่ฟซใๅฐๅฝขใจใชใฃใฆใใใใใๆฅๅพ้ ใฎๅ้ใ่ชๅ่ปใฎ้่กใไธๅฏ่ฝใช้ๆฎตใๅคใใๅธใฎๅๅดใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใซ้ใใ้่ทฏใฏๆจ้ซๅทฎใๅ ๆใใใใใซไธใฎไธใซ้ทๅคงใชใใณใใซใๆใฃใฆๅใฎๅพ้ ใ็ทฉใใใซใใฆใใใใพใๅดไธใจๅดไธใฏใคใณใฏใฉใคใณใจๅผใฐใใ2ๆฌใฎ้ผ็ดข้้ใง็ตใฐใใฆใใใใขใซใฒใคใใผๅทใฎๅๅฒธใไธใ้ฃใชใ่ตทไผใซๅฏใใ ๅฐๅฝขใจใชใฃใฆใใใๅพ้ ใฎๆฅใชๅ้ใๅคใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๆฑๅดใฏๅๅดใๅๅดใซๆฏ่ผใใใจ่ฅๅนฒใชใ ใใใงใฏใใใใฎใฎใใใฏใไธใ้ฃใชใฃใฆใใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฏไธใซๅฒใพใใ็ๅฐใฎๆง็ธใๅใใฆใใใ
ใใฎใใใชๅฐๅฝขใฎๅๅฐใซๅธๅใๅบใใใๅธ่กๅฐใไฝๅฎ ๅฐใๅฝขๆใใใฆใใใใใใใใใใผใฐใฎๆจ้ซใฏๅฐๅบใซใใฃใฆใใชใใฎ้ใใใใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๆจ้ซใฏ220-250m็จๅบฆใใชใใคใชๅทใฎๆฒณๅฒธใฏๆจ้ซ216mใงใใใใๅดไธใฎใใฆใณใใปใฏใทใณใใณๅฐๅบใฎๆจ้ซใฏ็ด320-350mใจใๆฒณๅฒธใใไธๆฐใซ100mไปฅไธ้ซใใชใใๅ็ซฏใฎใใชใผใปใใผในๅฐๅบใซ็ซๅฐใใใขใซใฒใคใใผๅคฉๆๅฐใฎๆจ้ซใฏ372mใงใใใใพใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๆฑใซๅบใใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใฎๆจ้ซใฏ270-310mใปใฉใงใใ[24]ใ
ๆฐๅ
็ทจ้| ใใใใใผใฐ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ้จๆธฉๅณ๏ผ่ชฌๆ๏ผ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
ใใใใใผใฐใฏใฑใใใณใฎๆฐๅๅบๅใงใใๆธฉๆๆนฟๆฝคๆฐๅ๏ผCfa๏ผใซๅฑใใใใฎใฎใๅคง่ฅฟๆดๆฒฟๅฒธใฎใใฅใผใจใผใฏใใใฃใฉใใซใใฃใขใใใซใใขใขใชใฉใจๆฏในใใจๅฌใฎๅฏใใฏๅณใใใใพใใจใชใผๆนใปใชใณใฟใชใชๆนๅๅฒธใฎใฏใชใผใใฉใณใใใจใชใผใใใใใกใญใผใใญใใงในใฟใผใปใฉใงใฏใชใใใฎใฎ้้ชใๅคใใๅฎ้ใซใฏไธญ่ฅฟ้จใฎๅคง้จๅใซๅๅธใใๅคง้ธๆงใฎไบๅฏๅธฏๆนฟๆฝคๆฐๅใซ่ฟใๆฐๅใงใใใๆใๆใ7ๆใฎๅนณๅๆฐๆธฉใฏ23โใปใฉใงใๆฅไธญใฏใจใใฉใ30โใ่ถ ใใใๆใๅฏใ1ๆใฎๅนณๅๆฐๆธฉใฏๆฐท็นไธ2โใงใๅคใฏๆฐท็นไธ15โไปฅไธใซไธใใใใจใใใใ้ๆฐด้ใฏๅคๅญฃใฎ5-8ๆใซใใใฆๅคใใๆ้90-110mm็จๅบฆใซ้ใใใใใใฎไปใฎๆใฏใปใผไธๅฎใใฆใใใๆ้60-80mmใๅนด้970mm็จๅบฆใงใใใใพใใ12ๆใใ3ๆใซใใใฆใฎๆ้้้ช้ใฏ14-19cmใๅนด้้้ช้ใฏ75cm็จๅบฆใงใใ[25]ใ
| 1ๆ | 2ๆ | 3ๆ | 4ๆ | 5ๆ | 6ๆ | 7ๆ | 8ๆ | 9ๆ | 10ๆ | 11ๆ | 12ๆ | ๅนด | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ๅนณๅๆฐๆธฉ๏ผโ๏ผ | -2.0 | -0.5 | 4.2 | 10.5 | 15.6 | 20.4 | 22.6 | 21.9 | 17.8 | 11.5 | 6.1 | 0.2 | 10.8 |
| ้ๆฐด้๏ผmm๏ผ | 68.6 | 61.0 | 76.2 | 78.7 | 101.6 | 109.2 | 96.5 | 88.9 | 78.7 | 58.4 | 81.3 | 73.7 | 972.8 |
| ้้ช้๏ผcm๏ผ | 19.1 | 17.5 | 14.7 | 2.0 | - | - | - | - | - | 0.3 | 6.6 | 14.2 | 74.4 |
้ฝๅธๆฆ่ฆณ
็ทจ้
ใใใใใผใฐๅธๅใฏใใใใใผใฐใปใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใจใใใฎๅจใใๅใๅฒใใใผในใปใตใคใใใตใฆในใปใตใคใใใคใผในใใปใจใณใใใฆใงในใใปใจใณใใฎ4ใคใฎๅฐๅใซๅคงๅฅใใใใใใใใฎๅฐๅใฏใใใซ็ดฐๅๅใใใใๅ จ้จใง90ใฎๅฐๅบใซๅใใใใ[26]ใ
ใใใใใผใฐใปใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฏใขใฌใฒใใผๅทใจใขใใณใฌใใฉๅทใซๆใพใใใ็ด1.7kmยฒใฎไธ่งๅฝข็ถใฎๅๅฐใซๅฏใซใพใจใพใฃใฆใใ[27]ใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใซใฏใใใใใผใฐใงๆใ้ซใๅปบ็ฉใงใใUSในใใผใซใปใฟใฏใผใใฏใใใๅคๆฐใฎ้ซๅฑคใป่ถ ้ซๅฑคใฎๅปบ็ฏ็ฉใๅปบใกไธฆใใงใใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณๅ ใใขใฌใฒใใผๅทๆฒฟใใฎ14ใใญใใฏใซใใใๅฐๅบใฏใใใจใใจใฏ่ตค็ทๅฐๅธฏใงใใฃใใใ1984ๅนดใซๅต่จญใใใใใใใใผใฐๆๅใใฉในใใซใใใๅๅ ดใ็พ่ก้คจใชใฉใฎ่ธ่กใปๆๅๆฝ่จญใๅปบใกไธฆใถๆๅๅฐๅบใธใจๅค่ฒใใ[28]ใใพใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใซใฏๆฐใใใณใณใใใใขใ ใๅปบ่จญใใใใใๅคใใชใใฃในใใซใใขใใผใใซ่ปข็จใใใใใจใ่ทไฝ่ฟๆฅๅใฎไฝๅฎ ๅฐใๅฝขๆใใใฆใใฆใใใ
ใใผในใปใตใคใใฏใขใฌใฒใใผๅทใปใชใใคใชๅทใฎๅๅฒธใซๅบใใฃใฆใใใใใฎๅฐๅใฏใใใจใใจใฏใขใฌใฒใใผใทใใฃใจใใใใใใใใผใฐใจใฏๅฅๅใฎ้ฝๅธใงใใฃใใใ1907ๅนดใซใใใใใผใฐใซ็ทจๅ ฅใใใไปๆฅใซ่ณใฃใฆใใใใใผในใปใตใคใใฏไธปใซๅคใใใใฎไฝๅฎ ่กใงใใใ19ไธ็ดใซๅปบใฆใใใใดใฃใฏใใชใขๆงๅผใฎๅฎถๅฑใๅปบใกไธฆใใงใใใใใใใฎๅฎถๅฑใฏไธปใซใฌใณใฌ้ ใใใใฏ็ณ้ ใงใๆจๅทฅๅใใปใฉใใใฏในใฎใฟใคใซใในใฌใผใใฎๅฑๆ นใในใใณใใฐใฉในใชใฉใง่ฃ ้ฃพใใใฆใใใไธๆนใใใผในใปใตใคใใฎไธญใงใใใขใฌใฒใใผๅทๆฒฟใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๅฏพๅฒธใซไฝ็ฝฎใใใใผในใปใทใงใขๅฐๅบใฏใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๅปถ้ทใจใ่จใใใใใชๅฐๅบใซใชใฃใฆใใใ้็ใฎPNCใใผใฏใใใใณใใใใใผใซใฎใขใฏใชใทใฅใขใปใใฃใผใซใใจใใใใจใใซ2001ๅนดใซๅฎๆใใ2ใคใฎในใฟใธใขใ ใๅปบใฃใฆใใใปใใใซใผใใฎใผ็งๅญฆใปใณใฟใผใใขใณใใฃใปใฆใฉใผใใซ็พ่ก้คจใชใฉใฎๆๅๆฝ่จญใๅปบใฃใฆใใใ
ใขใใณใฌใใฉๅทใฎๅๅฒธใซๅบใใใตใฆในใปใตใคใใฏใใใคใฆใฏ้้ผๆฅญใซๅพไบใใๅดๅ่ ใไฝใฟ็ใใใๅฎไพกใชไฝๅฎ ใๅปบใกไธฆใถๅฏๅบฆใฎ้ซใไฝๅฎ ่กใงใใฃใใใใใ1990ๅนดไปฃไปฅ้ใใใฎๅฐๅใงใฏๅๆดปๆงๅใๅณใใใๅๆฅญใ็บๅฑใใฆใใฆใใใใใฎไพใฎ1ใคใใซใผใฝใณใปในใใชใผใใงใ้ใๆฒฟใใซๅ็จฎๅบ่ใๆฐๆๆ็ๅบใใใผใใใคใใฏใฉใใชใฉใๅปบใกไธฆใถๅๆฅญๅฐใปๆญๆฅฝ่กใธใจๅค่ฒใ้ใใใ1993ๅนดใใใใใใผใฐ้ฝๅธๅ้็บๅฑใฏใตใฆในใปใตใคใใปใฏใผใฏในใฎ่ฃฝ้ๆใฎๆทๅฐใ่ฒทใๅใใๅฐๅใณใใฅใใใฃใไธๅ็ฃ้็บๆฅญ่ ใจๅๅใงใชใใฃในใไฝๅฎ ใไฟๅฅๆฝ่จญใๅทๆฒฟใใฎๅ ฌๅใใใใใใผใฐใปในใใฃใผใฉใผใบใใใใใใผใฐๅคงๅญฆใใณใตใผใบใไฝฟ็จใใๅฑๅ ใใใใใผใซ็ทด็ฟๅ ดใๅปบ่จญใใๅ้็บใในใฟใผใใฉใณใ็ซใฆใใๅปบ่จญใฏ1998ๅนดใซๅงใพใใ2002ๅนดใซใตใฆในใตใคใใปใฏใผใฏในใจใใใๅบ่ใ้ฃฒ้ฃๅบใใชใใฃในใๆใค่คๅๅๆฅญๆฝ่จญใจใใฆ้้คจใใใ2007ๅนดใซใฏใใขใกใชใซใณใปใคใผใฐใซใปใขใฆใใใฃใใฟใผใบใๅ้ใฎใฆใฉใผใฌใณใใผใซใใใใฎใตใฆในใตใคใใปใฏใผใฏในใซๆฌ็คพใ็งป่ปขใใ[29]ใ
ใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๆฑใซๅบใใใคใผในใใปใจใณใใฏๅฐๅบใใจใซใใฃใฆๆงใ ใชๅฝขๆ ใซ็บๅฑใใฆใใใใซใผใใฎใผใกใญใณๅคงๅญฆใใใใใใผใฐๅคงๅญฆใใญใฃใณใในใ็ฝฎใใๆๅๆฝ่จญใ้ไธญใใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใฏๅธใฎๆๆๅฐๅบใจใชใฃใฆใใใใใฎใใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใซใฏๅญฆ็ใๅคใไฝใใงใใใไธๆนใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใฎๆฑใซๅบใใใทใงใคใใฃใตใคใๅฐๅบใในใฏใคใฌใซใปใใซๅฐๅบใฏ้ซ็ดไฝๅฎ ่กใจใชใฃใฆใใใใทใงใคใใฃใตใคใๅฐๅบใฎๅใซๅบใใใใซใผใ ใใฃใผใซใๅฐๅบใฏใใใใใผใฐใฎใชใใซใปใคใฟใชใผใจๅผใฐใใใคใฟใชใขๆ็ๅบใใคใฟใชใข้่ฒจๅบใ่ปใ้ฃใญใฆใใใใใซใผใ ใใฃใผใซใๅฐๅบใฎใใใซๅใใขใฌใฒใใผๅทๆฒฟใใซใฏใ่ธ่กๅฎถใๅคใไฝใใญใผใฌใณในใใซๅฐๅบใๅบใใฃใฆใใใใญใผใฌใณในใใซๅฐๅบใฎ่ฅฟใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๅๆฑใซใขใฌใฒใใผๅทใซๆฒฟใฃใฆๅบใใในใใชใใๅฐๅบใฏใๆผ้ใฏ้ฒๅบใ็ซใกไธฆใณใๅคใฏใใคใใฏใฉใใ่ปใ้ฃใญใๆญๆฅฝ่กใจใชใฃใฆใใใ
ใชใใคใชๅทใฎๅๅฒธใใตใฆในใปใตใคใใฎ่ฅฟใฎๅฐๅใฏใฆใงในใใปใจใณใใจๅผใฐใใฆใใใใใฎๅฐๅใฏใใใผในใปใตใคใใจๅๆงใซใใจใใจใฏใใใใใผใฐใจใฏๅฅๅใซๅต่จญใใใ้ฝๅธใงใใใณใใฉใณในใใซใจๅผใฐใใฆใใใใ1872ๅนดใซใใใใใผใฐใซ็ทจๅ ฅใใใใใฆใงในใใปใจใณใใฏๅฐใไฝๅฎ ่กใจใชใฃใฆใใใ
ๅปบ็ฏ็ฉ
็ทจ้
|
|
| ||
ใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใปใใใใใผใฐใซๅปบใค่ถ
้ซๅฑคใใซ
ๅทฆ: USในใใผใซใปใฟใฏใผใไธญๅคฎ: BNYใกใญใณใปใปใณใฟใผใๅณ: ใฏใณใปPPGใใฌใคใน | ||||
ใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ ใซใฏ้ซใ150mไปฅไธใฎ้ซๅฑคๅปบ็ฏ็ฉใ9ๆฃๅปบใฃใฆใใใใใฎใใกใฎ8ๆฃใฏใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใซ้ไธญใใฆใใใUSในใใผใซใฎๆฌ็คพใใซใจใใฆ1970ๅนดใซๅปบใฆใใใ64้ๅปบใฆใ้ซใ256mใฎUSในใใผใซใปใฟใฏใผใฏใใใใใใผใฐใงๆใ้ซใใใซใงใใใ1987ๅนดใซใใฃใฉใใซใใฃใขใซใฏใณใปใชใใใฃใปใใฌใคในใๅฎๆใใใพใงใฏใใใใใใผใฐใฎใฟใชใใใใณใทใซใใใขๅทใงๆใ้ซใใใซใงใใฃใ[30]ใใใฎใใซใฏใๆฑไบฌ้ฝๆฐๅฎฟๅบใฎๆฐๅฎฟไฝๅใใซใจๅๆงใไธใใ่ฆใใจ่งใๅใใใไธ่งๅฝขใใใฆใใใใใฎUSในใใผใซใปใฟใฏใผใซๆฌกใใง้ซใใฎใ54้ๅปบใฆใ้ซใ221mใฎBNYใกใญใณใปใปใณใฟใผ๏ผๆง็งฐใฏใณใปใกใญใณใปใปใณใฟใผ๏ผใงใใ[31]ใใใฎใใซใซใฏใใกใญใณใปใใฃใใณใทใฃใซใใใณใฏใปใชใใปใใฅใผใจใผใฏใจๅไฝตใใๅใซๆฌ็คพใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใBNYใกใญใณใปใปใณใฟใผใซๆฌกใใงๅธใง3็ช็ฎใซ้ซใใฎใ40้ๅปบใฆใ้ซใ194mใฎใฏใณใปPPGใใฌใคในใงใใ[32]ใPPGใคใณใในใใชใผใบใฎๆฌ็คพใใซใจใใฆๅปบใฆใใใใใฎใใซใฏใฌใฉในใกใผใซใผใฎๆฌ็คพใใซใซ็ธๅฟใใใๅ จ้ขใฌใฉในๅผตใใซใชใฃใฆใใใใพใใๅฑไธใฎๅ้ ใซใฏๅฐๅกใ่จญใใใใไธญไธใจใผใญใใใฎๅกใๆใใใๅค่ฆณใซใชใฃใฆใใใ
ใใฎใปใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใซๅปบใค้ซใ150mไปฅไธใฎ้ซๅฑคๅปบ็ฏ็ฉใจใใฆใฏใใใฃใในใปใขใใใฅใผใปใใฌใคใน๏ผ31้ๅปบใฆใ้ซใ188m๏ผ[33]ใใฏใณใปใชใใฏในใใฉใผใใปใปใณใฟใผ๏ผ45้ๅปบใฆใ้ซใ187m๏ผ[34]ใใฌใซใใปใใซใใฃใณใฐ๏ผ44้ๅปบใฆใ้ซใ177m๏ผ[35]ใ525ใฆใฃใชใขใ ใปใใณใปใใฌใผใน๏ผๆง็งฐในใชใผใปใกใญใณใปใปใณใฟใผใ41้ๅปบใฆใ้ซใ158m๏ผ[36]ใใฏใณใปใชใชใใผใปใใฉใถ๏ผๆง็งฐใใชใผใใผใฑใใใปใปใณใฟใผใ39้ๅปบใฆใ้ซใ156m๏ผ[37]ใๆใใใใใ
ๆฎใใฎ1ๆฃใฏใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใซใญใฃใณใในใ็ฝฎใใใใใใผใฐๅคงๅญฆใฎใกใคใณใฎๅปบ็ฉใๅญฆใณใฎ่ๅ ใงใใใ1926ๅนดใซๅปบ่จญใๅงใใใใ1937ๅนดใซๅฎๆใใใใฎ42้ๅปบใฆใ้ซใ163mใฎใดใทใใฏใปใชใใคใใซๅปบ็ฏๆงๅผใฎๆ ก่ใฏใๅคงๅญฆใฎๅปบ็ฏ็ฉใจใใฆใฏๅ จ็ฑณใงๆใ้ซใใไธ็ใงใใขในใฏใฏๅคงๅญฆใฎใกใคใณใปใใซใใฃใณใฐใซๆฌกใใง้ซใใใฎใงใใใๅญฆใณใฎ่ๅ ใฎๅ ้จใซใฏ4้ๅใฎ้ซใใฎใณใขใณใบใปใซใผใ ใใๅๅฝใใจใฎใใผใใซๆฒฟใฃใๆๅฎคใ่จญใใใใฆใใใใใฎๆ ก่ใฏ1975ๅนดใซๅฝๅฎถๆญดๅฒ็ป้ฒๆใซๆๅฎใใใ[38]ใ
ๆฟๆฒป
็ทจ้
ใใใใใผใฐใฏ1856ๅนดใซๆๅใฎๅ ฑๅๅ ๅ จๅฝๅคงไผใ่กใใใๅฐใงใใใใใไปฅๆฅใ1930ๅนดไปฃใพใงใฏใใใใใใผใฐใงใฏๅ ฑๅๅ ใฎๅขๅใๅงๅ็ใซๅผทใใฃใใใใใใ1929ๅนดใฎไธ็ๆๆ ใจใใฎๅพใฎๅ จ็ฑณ็ใชไธๆณใฎไธญใงใใใใใใผใฐใซใใใๅ ฑๅๅ ใฎๅขๅใฏๆฅ้ใซๅผฑใพใฃใใ1934ๅนดใซใฆใฃใชใขใ ใปNใปใใฏใใขใๆฐไธปๅ ็ณปๅธ้ทใซๅฝ้ธใใฆใใใฏใใใใใใผใฐใงใฏๅธ้ทใๅธ่ญฐไผใจใใซๆฐไธปๅ ใๅชๅขใงใใใไปๆฅใงใฏใใใใใใผใฐใฎ้ธๆ็ป้ฒใซใใใๆฐไธปๅ ๅฏพๅ ฑๅๅ ใฎๆฏใฏ5:1ใซใชใฃใฆใใ[39]ใ
ใใใใใผใฐๅธๆฟๅบใฎไบๅๆใฏใใใใใผใฐๅธใปใขใซใฒใคใใผ้กๅๅๅบ่ใซ็ฝฎใใใฆใใใใใใใใผใฐใฏๅธ้ทๅถใๆกใฃใฆใใใๅธ่ญฐไผใฏ9ไบบใฎ่ญฐๅกใใใชใฃใฆใใใๅธ้ทใปๅธ่ญฐๅกใฎไปปๆใฏใใใใ4ๅนดใงใใใใใใใใผใฐใฎๅธ่ญฐไผ่ญฐๅก้ธๆใฏๅฐ้ธๆๅบๅถใงใๅธใ9ใคใฎ้ธๆๅบใซๅใใฆ1ๅใใคใ้ธๅบใใๆนๅผใจใชใฃใฆใใ[40]ใ
2006ๅนด9ๆใซๅฝๆใฎๅธ้ทใใใปใชใณใณใใผใๆญปๅปใใๅพใๅธ่ญฐไผ่ญฐ้ทใงใใฃใใซใผใฏใปใฌใคใใณในใใผใซใใชใณใณใใผใฎไปปๆใๅฎไบใใใใใๅธ้ทใฎไปปใซๅฐฑใใใใฌใคใใณในใใผใซใฏๅฐฑไปปๅฝๆ26ๆญณใงใใใใใใผใฐๅธๅฒไธๆๅนดๅฐใฎๅธ้ทใงใใฃใ[41]ใใใฎๅพใใฌใคใใณในใใผใซใฏ2007ๅนดใซ่กใใใ็นๅฅ้ธๆใใใใณ2009ๅนดใซ่กใใใ้ๅธธใฎๅธ้ท้ธๆใงใๅฝ้ธใใ[42][43]ใใใใใ2013ๅนดใฎๅธ้ท้ธๆใซใฏๅบ้ฆฌใใใไธๅบฆ็ฎใฎ็ซๅ่ฃใจใชใฃใๆฐไธปๅ ใฎใใซใปใใใฅใผใใๅธ้ทใซๅฝ้ธใใใ
ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท่ญฐไผใซใใใฆใฏใๅทไธ้ข่ญฐๅก้ธๆๅบ3ใคใใใใณๅทไธ้ข่ญฐๅก้ธๆๅบ9ใคใใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ ใซใใใฃใฆใใใใพใใ้ฃ้ฆ่ญฐไผไธ้ข่ญฐๅก้ธๆใซใใใฆใฏใใใใใใผใฐใฏใใณใทใซใใใข็ฌฌ14้ธๆๅบใซๅฑใใฆใใใ
็ตๆธ
็ทจ้19ไธ็ดๅพๆใใ20ไธ็ดไธญ็คใซใใใฆใใใใใใผใฐใฎๅฐๅ็ตๆธใฏ่ฃฝ้ๆฅญใงๆฏใใใใฆใใใ
1968ๅนดใฎใใใใใณๅ ฑๅๆธใซใใใจใใกใญใณ่ฒก้ฅใใใใใใผใฐใฎไฟก่จ่ณ็ฃ็ท้กใซใใใฆ72.3๏ผ ใ้็จใใฆใใใ1970ๅนดไปฃไปฅ้ใใใใใใผใฐใฏใญใใใใป็็ฉๅปๅญฆๆ่กใปๆ ธๅทฅๅญฆใชใฉใฎใใคใใฏ็ฃๆฅญใใไฟ้บใป้่ใป่ฆณๅ ใปใตใผใในๆฅญใไธญๅฟใจใใ็ตๆธใธ็งป่กใใใ
ใใใใใผใฐ้ฝๅธๅๅ ใซใฏใใฉใผใใฅใณ500ใซๅ ฅใไผๆฅญใฎใใกใไปฅไธใฎ8็คพใๆฌ็คพใ็ฝฎใใฆใใ[44]ใ
- USในใใผใซ - ้้ผ๏ผๅ จ็ฑณๆๅคงๆ๏ผ
- PPGใคใณใในใใชใผใบ - ใฌใฉในใปๅๅญฆ
- ใใคใณใ - ้ฃๅ๏ผใฑใใฃใใใง็ฅใใใ๏ผ
- PNCใใกใคใใณใทใฃใซใตใผใใทใบ - ้่
- ใฆใงในใณใปใคใณใฟใผใใทใงใใซ - ้ปๆฐๅทฅไบใปไฟๅฎใปไฟฎ็
- ใขใซใฒใคใใผใปใใฏใใญใธใผใบ - ้้ผใป้้้ๅฑ
- ใใคใฉใณ - ่ฃฝ่ฌ
- ใณใณใฝใซใปใจใใธใผ - ็ณ็ญ
ไธ่จใฎไผๆฅญใซๅ ใใใใใใใผใฐใฏใขใซใใใฆใ ๅคงๆใฎใขใซใณใขๅตๆฅญใฎๅฐใงใใใ็พๅจใๅ็คพใ้่ฆๆ ็นใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใปใใใใณใฏใปใชใใปใใฅใผใจใผใฏใปใกใญใณใใกใญใณใปใใฃใใณใทใฃใซใฎๆฌ็คพใ็ฝฎใใใฆใใใใฎๅฐใซ้่ฆๆ ็นใๆฎใใฆใใใใใงใใใฏในใฎๅญไผ็คพใงใใใใงใใใฏในใปใฐใฉใฆใณใใฏใใใใใใผใฐ่ฅฟ้ใฎใ ใผใณใปใฟใฆใณใทใใใซๆฌ็คพใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใใพใใใใใใใผใฐใซใฏใใคใใฎๅคงๆ่ฃฝ่ฌไผ็คพใใคใจใซใฎๅจ็ฑณๆณไบบใฎๆฌ็คพใใใคใฎใชในใฎๅคงๆ่ฃฝ่ฌไผ็คพใฐใฉใฏใฝใปในใในใฏใฉใคใณใฎๆถ่ฒป่ ๅใ่ฃฝๅ้จ้ใฎๆฌ้จใ็ฝฎใใใฆใใใ
ไบค้
็ทจ้
ใใใใใผใฐใฎ็้ขๅฃใจใชใ็ฉบๆธฏใฏใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๅ่ฅฟ็ด22km[45]ใซ็ซๅฐใใใใใใใผใฐๅฝ้็ฉบๆธฏ๏ผIATA: PIT๏ผใงใใใใใฎ็ฉบๆธฏใฏใใใใใผใฐใจใใฎ้ฝๅธๅใฎใฟใชใใใใคใณใฐในใฟใฆใณใในใใฅใผใใณใใซใใใคใผใชใณใฐใใขใผใฌใณใฟใฆใณใชใฉใใชใใคใชๅทๆฑ้จใใฆใงในใใใผใธใใขๅทๅ้จใๅซใๅบใ็ฏๅฒใฎ็ฉบใฎ็้ขๅฃใจใใชใฃใฆใใใใใฎ็ฉบๆธฏใฏ2004ๅนดใพใงใฏUSใจใขใฆใงใคใบๆๅคงใฎใใ็ฉบๆธฏใงใใฃใใใๅ็คพใฎ็ตๅถๆชๅใจใขใกใชใซใฆใจในใ่ช็ฉบใจใฎๅไฝตใซใใใใใ็ฉบๆธฏใฉใใใ็ฆ็น็ฉบๆธฏใใใๅคใใใๅคงๅน ใซๆธไพฟใใฆใใ[46]ใใใใใๅ่บซใฎใชใผใซใปใขใกใชใซใณใปใขใใจใผใทใงใณๅตๆฅญใฎๅฐใงใใใใใใใผใฐใจUSใจใขใฆใงใคใบใฎ้ขใใใฏไพ็ถใจใใฆๆทฑใใ2007ๅนดใซใฏใๅ็คพใฎใใใพใงใฎใใฉใคใใปใชใใฌใผใทใงใณใปใปใณใฟใผใ็ตฑๅใใๅฝขใงใใใใใผใฐใซใฐใญใผใใซใปใใฉใคใใปใชใใฌใผใทใงใณใปใปใณใฟใผใ่จญ็ฝฎใใใใ
ใใใใใผใฐใงใฏๅท้้ซ้้่ทฏ70ๅท็ทใๅท้้ซ้้่ทฏ76ๅทๆฑ็ทใๅท้้ซ้้่ทฏ79ๅท็ทใฎ3ๆฌใฎๅท้้ซ้้่ทฏใไบคใใใI-70ใฏ่ฅฟใธใใคใผใชใณใฐใใณใญใณใในๆน้ขใธใใพใๆฑใธใฏใใคใฌใผใบใฟใฆใณใใใซใใขใขใปใฏใทใณใใณD.C.ๆน้ขใธใจ้ใใใI-76ใฏๅ่ฅฟใธใคใณใฐในใฟใฆใณใใฏใชใผใใฉใณใใปใขใฏใญใณๆน้ขใธใใพใๆฑใธใฏใใชในใใผใฐใใใฃใฉใใซใใฃใขๆน้ขใธใจ้ใใใI-79ใฏๅใธใจใชใผๆน้ขใธใใพใๅใธใฏใขใผใฌใณใฟใฆใณใใใฃใผใซในใใณๆน้ขใธใจ้ใใใ
ใใใใใใใใฎ้ซ้้่ทฏใฏๅธใฎๅจๅฒใไธ่งๅฝข็ถใซๅใๅฒใ็ฐ็ถ้่ทฏใจใชใฃใฆใใใๅธใฎไธญๅฟ้จใซใฏใใใใฎๆฏ็ทใ้ใฃใฆใใใI-76ใฎๆฏ็ทใงใใI-376ใฏๅธใฎๆฑๅดใใในใฏใฏใผใฉใซใปใใซๅฐๅบใฎไธใซๆใใใใใณใใซใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใ้ใฃใฆๅธใฎไธญๅฟ้จใธใจๅใใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใงใฏๅๅดใฎใขใใณใฌใใฉๅทๅๅฒธใ้ใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎ่ฅฟ็ซฏใซ่ณใใจI-376ใฏใขใใณใฌใใฉๅทใๆธกใใๅๅฒธใฎๆจ้ซๅทฎใๅ ๆใใใใใซใใฆใณใใปใฏใทใณใใณๅฐๅบใฎไธใซๆใใใใใฉใผใใปใใใใปใใณใใซใจใใ้ทๅคงใชใใณใใซใ้ใฃใฆ่ฅฟใซๆใใใใใใใผใฐๅฝ้็ฉบๆธฏใ้ใใๅธใฎๅ่ฅฟใงI-76ๆฌ็ทใจไบคใใฃใฆใใใซๅใธใจ่ตฐใใๅท้้ซ้้่ทฏ80ๅท็ทใธใจ้ใใใI-79ใฎๆฏ็ทใงใใI-279ใฏๅธใฎๅๅดใใๅธใฎไธญๅฟ้จใธใจ่ณใใใขใซใฒใคใใผๅทใๆธกใฃใฆใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎ่ฅฟ็ซฏใงI-376ใซๅๆตใใใๅใใI-79ใฎๆฏ็ทใงใใI-579ใฏใขใซใฒใคใใผๅทๅๅฒธใงI-279ใจๅๅฒใใๅทใๆธกใฃใฆใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๆฑ็ซฏใธใจ่ณใใ
ใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใซใฏใขใ ใใฉใใฏใฎใฆใใชใณ้ง ใใใใใฏใทใณใใณD.C.ใจใทใซใดใใฏใชใผใใฉใณใ็ต็ฑใง็ตใถ้ท่ท้ขๅ่ปใญใฃใใใซใปใชใใใใๅทใๅ่ปใใใใพใใใใฎ้ง ใฏใใฅใผใจใผใฏใใใใฃใฉใใซใใฃใขใ้ใฃใฆใใณใทใซใใใขๅทใๆฑ่ฅฟใซๆจชๆญใใไธญ่ท้ขๅ่ปใใณใทใซใใใขใณๅทใฎ่ฅฟใฎ็ต็นใซใชใฃใฆใใใ
ใใใใใผใฐใฎๅ ฌๅ ฑไบค้ๆฉ้ขใฏใขใฌใฒใใผ้กๆธฏๆนพๅฑใซใใฃใฆ้ๅถใใใฆใใใๅๅฑใฏใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใใๅธๅ้จใ้ใใๅ้ใธใจ่ณใ4่ทฏ็ทใฎใใใใใผใฐใปใฉใคใใฌใผใซใใๅธๅ ใ็ธฆๆจชใซใซใใผใใ่ทฏ็ทใใน็ถฒใใขใใณใฌใใคใฉๅทใฎๅๅฒธใฎๆฅๅณปใชๅดใไธใไธใใใใขใใณใฌใใฉใปใคใณใฏใฉใคใณใจใใ้ผ็ดข้้ใ้ๅถใใฆใใใใฉใคใใฌใผใซใฏใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใงใฏๅฐไธใ่ตฐใฃใฆใใใใๅคง้จๅใฏๅฐไธใ่ตฐใฃใฆใใใใพใใๅธใฎ่ฅฟๅดใๅๅดใๆฑๅดใธใฏใใใใใในๅฐ็จ้ใๆดๅใใใฆใใ[47]ใ
ใขใใณใฌใใฉใปใคใณใฏใฉใคใณใใไธๆตใซ่จญ็ฝฎใใใฆใใใใชใใคใชๅทๅๅฒธใฎๅดใไธใไธใใใ้ผ็ดข้้ใใฅใฑใคใณใปใคใณใฏใฉใคใณใฏใขใฌใฒใใผ้กๆธฏๆนพๅฑใจใฏๅฅๅใฎใ้ๅถๅฉใฎไฟๅญๅไผใซใใฃใฆ้ๅถใใใฆใใ[48]ใ1877ๅนดใซ้้ใใใใฎ้ผ็ดข้้ใฏใๅฐๅ ไฝๆฐใฎใฟใชใใใ่ป็ชใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใไธๆใงใใ้้ใจใใฆ่ฆณๅ ๅฎขใซใๅฉ็จใใใฆใใใ
ๆ่ฒ
็ทจ้้ซ็ญๆ่ฒ
็ทจ้
ใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ ใใใใณ้ฝๅธๅๅ ใซใฏๅคใใฎๅคงๅญฆใใญใฃใณใในใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใไธญใงใใจใใใ้ซใ่ฉไพกใๅใใฆใใใๅ จ็ฑณใฎใฟใชใใไธ็็ใซ็ฅๅๅบฆใ้ซใใฎใใ1900ๅนดใซใขใณใใชใฅใผใปใซใผใใฎใผใ่จญ็ซใใใซใผใใฎใผๆ่กๅญฆๆ กใจ1913ๅนดใซใขใณใใชใฅใผใปใกใญใณใ่จญ็ซใใใกใญใณๅทฅๅญฆ็ ็ฉถๆใๅ่บซใจใใใซใผใใฎใผใกใญใณๅคงๅญฆใงใใใใใฎ็ง็ซๅคงๅญฆใฏUSใใฅใผใบ&ใฏใผใซใใปใฌใใผใใๆฏๅนด็บ่กใใฆใใๅ จ็ฑณใฎๅคงๅญฆใฉใณใญใณใฐใงๅธธใซไธไฝ25ไฝไปฅๅ ใซๅ ฅใ่ฉไพกใๅใใฆใใใๅๅญฆใฏใซใผใใฎใผๆ่กๅญฆๆ กๆไปฃใใใฎไผ็ตฑใฎๅทฅๅญฆใใฏใใใใณใณใใฅใผใฟ็งๅญฆใๆ ๅ ฑๅ ฌๅ ฑๆฟ็ญ็ฎก็ใ็ตๆธๅญฆใใใใณ่ธ่กใฎๅ้ใง็นใซ้ซใ่ฉไพกใๅใใฆใใใๅๅญฆใฏๅญฆ้จ็็ด6,000ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด5,000ไบบใๆฑใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๆฑ็ด5kmใๆ่ฒๆฉ้ขใ็ ็ฉถๆฉ้ขใๆๅๆฝ่จญใฎ้ไธญใใใใใใใผใฐใฎๆๆๅฐๅบใงใใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใซ็ด580,000mยฒใฎใญใฃใณใในใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใๅๅญฆใฏ2005ๅนดใใขใธใขใซใใใๆ ๅ ฑใปใญใฅใชใใฃๆ่ฒ็ ็ฉถๆ ็นใจใชใใใจใ็ฎๆใใฆใๅ ตๅบซ็็ฅๆธๅธไธญๅคฎๅบใซๆฅๆฌๆ กใ่จญ็ซใใ[49]๏ผ2010ๅนดใซๅปๆญข๏ผใ
ใซใผใใฎใผใกใญใณๅคงๅญฆใฎ่ฅฟใซใฏใใใใใผใฐๅคงๅญฆใฎ็ด530,000mยฒใฎใญใฃใณใในใ้ฃๆฅใใฆใใใ1787ๅนดใซใใใใใผใฐใปใขใซใใใผใจใใ็ง็ซใฎ้ซ็ญๆ่ฒๆฉ้ขใจใใฆ่จญ็ซใใใใใฎๅคงๅญฆใฏใ1966ๅนดใซใๅทใ้ขไธใใๅคงๅญฆใใจใใฆใใณใทใซใใใขๅทใฎ้ซ็ญๆ่ฒใทในใใ ใซ็ตใฟๅ ฅใใใใ[50]ใๅๅญฆใฏๅญฆ้จ็็ด27,000ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด17,000ไบบใๆฑใใๅคงๅ็ทๅๅคงๅญฆใงใใใๅๅญฆใฏUSใใฅใผใบ&ใฏใผใซใใปใฌใใผใใฎๅคงๅญฆใฉใณใญใณใฐใงใฏๅ จ็ฑณใฎๅท็ซๅคงๅญฆใฎไธญใงไธไฝ20ไฝไปฅๅ ใๅ จไฝใงใไธไฝ60ไฝไปฅๅ ใซๅ ฅใฃใฆใใใๅๅญฆใฏ็นใซๅปๅญฆใๆญฏๅญฆใ่ฌๅญฆใไฟๅฅๅญฆใ็่ญทๅญฆใๆ ๅ ฑ็งๅญฆใ็คพไผ็ฆ็ฅๅญฆใฎๅ้ใง้ซใ่ฉไพกใๅพใฆใใใใพใใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบๅ ใฎ่ฅฟๅดใซ็ซๅฐใใฆใใๅๅญฆใฎ็ ้ขใใใใใใผใฐๅคงๅญฆๅป็ใปใณใฟใผ๏ผUPMC๏ผใฏใๅ จ็ฑณใงๆใๅชใใ็ ้ขใฎ1ใคใซๆฐใใใใฆใใ[51]ใๅๅญฆใฎ็ฉ็ๅญฆใปๅคฉๆๅญฆ้จใฏใๅธๅ็ซฏใฎใใชใผใปใใผในๅฐๅบใฎไธใฎไธใซใขใซใฒใคใใผๅคฉๆๅฐใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใ
ใใฅใฑใคใณๅคงๅญฆใฏใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๅๆฑใซ้ฃๆฅใใใใฉใๅฐๅบใซ็ด200,000mยฒใฎใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใฆใใใๅๅญฆใฏๅญฆ้จ็็ด6,000ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด4,500ไบบใๆฑใใใซใใชใใฏ็ณปใฎไธญ่ฆๆจก็ง็ซๅคงๅญฆใงใๅฐไบบๆฐใฏใฉในใซใใๆ่ฒใ่กใฃใฆใใใๅๅญฆใฏUSใใฅใผใบ&ใฏใผใซใใปใฌใใผใใฎๅคงๅญฆใฉใณใญใณใฐใงใฏไธไฝ150ไฝไปฅๅ ใซๅ ฅใ่ฉไพกใๅใใฆใใใ1878ๅนดใซๅต็ซใใใฆใใใฎไผ็ตฑใฎใชใใฉใซใปใขใผใใซๅ ใใฆใๆณๅญฆใ็ตๅถๅญฆใ่ฌๅญฆใฎๅฐ้ๅ้ใฎๅคงๅญฆ้ขใ้ซใ่ฉไพกใๅใใฆใใใ
ใใฎใปใใซใฏใไปฅไธใฎๅคงๅญฆใใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ ใใพใใฏ้ฝๅธๅๅ ใซใญใฃใณใในใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใ
- ใซใผใญใฆๅคงๅญฆ๏ผCarlow University๏ผ - ใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใๅญฆ้จ็็ด1,900ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด500ไบบใๆฑใใใซใใชใใฏ็ณปๅฐ่ฆๆจก็ง็ซๅคงๅญฆใ1929ๅนดใซๅต็ซใใใๅฝๅใฏๅฅณๅญๅคงๅญฆใงใ1945ๅนดใซๅ ฑๅญฆๅใใใใ็พๅจใงใๅญฆ็ใฎ9ๅฒไปฅไธใๅฅณๅญใๅ ใใใ
- ใใฃใฟใ ๅคงๅญฆ๏ผChatham University๏ผ - ใทใงใคใใฃใตใคใๅฐๅบใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใ1869ๅนดๅต็ซใฎๅฅณๅญใชใใฉใซใปใขใผใใปใซใฌใใธ๏ผใใ ใๅคงๅญฆ้ขใฏๅ ฑๅญฆ๏ผใ
- ใใคใณใใใผใฏๅคงๅญฆ๏ผPoint Park University๏ผ - ใญใฃใณใในใจใใฆ็ขบไฟใใใๅๅฐใๆใใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๆฐใถๆใซๆ ก่ใๆใใ้ฝๅธๅๅคงๅญฆใ็ด4,000ไบบใฎๅญฆ็ใๆฑใใใ1960ๅนดใซๅต็ซใใใใใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ ใงใฏๆใๆฐใใ4ๅนดๅถๅคงๅญฆใใธใฃใผใใชใบใ ใๆผๆ่ธ่กใฎๅ้ใซๅใๅ ฅใใฆใใใ
- ใขใซใฒใคใใผ้กใณใใฅใใใฃใซใฌใใธ๏ผCommunity College of Allegheny County๏ผ - 1966ๅนดๅต็ซใฎ2ๅนดๅถใณใใฅใใใฃใปใซใฌใใธใใใผในใทใงใขๅฐๅบใฎใกใคใณใญใฃใณใในใฎใปใใใขใซใฒใคใใผ้กๅ ใซ3ใถๆใฎใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใ60,000ไบบไปฅไธใฎๅญฆ็ใๅญฆใใงใใใ
- ใฉใปใญใผใใงๅคงๅญฆ๏ผLa Roche College๏ผ - ๅ้ใฎใใใซใณใใฌในใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใๅญฆ้จ็็ด1,700ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด250ไบบใๆฑใใ1963ๅนดๅต็ซใฎใซใใชใใฏ็ณปๅฐ่ฆๆจก็ง็ซๅคงๅญฆใ
- ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท็ซในใชใใใชใผใญใใฏๅคงๅญฆ๏ผSlippery Rock University of Pennsylvania๏ผ - ๅ้ใฎในใชใใใชใผใญใใฏใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใๅญฆ้จ็็ด7,000ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด700ไบบใๆฑใใไธญ่ฆๆจกๅท็ซๅคงๅญฆใ
- ใญใใผใใขใชในๅคงๅญฆ๏ผRobert Morris University๏ผ - ่ฅฟ้ใฎใ ใผใณใปใฟใฆใณใทใใใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใๅญฆ้จ็็ด4,000ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด1,100ไบบใๆฑใใ1921ๅนดๅต็ซใฎไธญ่ฆๆจก็ง็ซๅคงๅญฆใ
- ใธใงใใๅคงๅญฆ๏ผGeneva College๏ผ - ๅ่ฅฟ้ใฎใใผใใผใใฉใผใซใบใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใๅญฆ้จ็็ด1,600ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด250ไบบใๆฑใใ1848ๅนดๅต็ซใฎ้ท่ๆดพๆไผ็ณปใชใใฉใซใปใขใผใใปใซใฌใใธใ
- ใฏใทใณใใณใปใขใณใใปใธใงใใกใผใฝใณๅคงๅญฆ๏ผWashington & Jefferson College๏ผ - ๅ่ฅฟ้ใฎใฏใทใณใใณใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใ็ด1,500ไบบใฎๅญฆ็ใๆฑใใ็ง็ซใชใใฉใซใปใขใผใใปใซใฌใใธใ1781ๅนดๅต็ซใฎ้ทใๆญดๅฒใ่ชใใชใใฉใซใปใขใผใใปใซใฌใใธใงใๅ จ็ฑณใฎใชใใฉใซใปใขใผใใปใซใฌใใธใฎไธญใงไธไฝ100ไฝไปฅๅ ใซๅ ฅใ่ฉไพกใๅใใฆใใใ
- ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท็ซใซใชใใฉใซใใขๅคงๅญฆ๏ผCalifornia University of Pennsylvania๏ผ - ๅ้ใฎใซใชใใฉใซใใขใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใๅญฆ้จ็็ด6,700ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด1,400ไบบใๆฑใใ1852ๅนดๅต็ซใฎไธญ่ฆๆจกๅท็ซๅคงๅญฆใ
- ใทใผใใณใใซๅคงๅญฆ๏ผSeton Hill University๏ผ - ๆฑ้ใฎใฐใชใผใณใบใใผใฐใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใ1883ๅนดๅต็ซใฎใซใใชใใฏ็ณป็ง็ซๅคงๅญฆใ
- ใปใณใใปใดใฃใณใปใณใๅคงๅญฆ๏ผSaint Vincent College๏ผ - ๆฑ้ใฎใฌใคใใญใผใใซใญใฃใณใในใๆงใใๅญฆ้จ็็ด1,600ไบบใๅคงๅญฆ้ข็็ด200ไบบใๆฑใใใซใใชใใฏ็ณปใชใใฉใซใปใขใผใใปใซใฌใใธใ1846ๅนดๅต็ซๅฝๅใฏ็ทๅญๅคงๅญฆใงใ1983ๅนดใซๅ ฑๅญฆๅใใใ
ๅ็ญใปไธญ็ญๆ่ฒ
็ทจ้ใใใใใผใฐใซใใใK-12่ชฒ็จใฏใใใใใผใฐๅ ฌ็ซๅญฆๅบใฎ็ฎก่ฝไธใซใใๅ ฌ็ซๅญฆๆ กใซใใฃใฆๆฏใใใใฆใใใใใฎๅญฆๅบใฏใใณใทใซใใใขๅทๅ ใฎๅ ฌ็ซๅญฆๅบใจใใฆใฏ2็ช็ฎใซๅคงใใ่ฆๆจกใงใๅนผ็จๅใใ้ซ็ญๅญฆๆ กใพใงใใใใฆ66ๆ กใฎๅญฆๆ กใ้ๅถใใฆใใใ็ด26,000ไบบใฎๅ ็ซฅใป็ๅพใๅจๅญฆใใฆใใ[52]ใใพใใใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ ใซใฏๅ ฌ็ซๅญฆๆ กใฎใปใใๆไผ็ณปใใฎไปใฎ็ง็ซๅญฆๆ กใ่คๆฐๅญๅจใใใ
ๅณๆธ้คจ
็ทจ้ใใใใใผใฐใฎๅ ฌๅ ฑๅณๆธ้คจใทในใใ ใงใใใใใใใผใฐใปใซใผใใฎใผๅณๆธ้คจใทในใใ ใฏใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใซ็ซๅฐใใๆฌ้คจใใฏใใใๅธๅ ใซ19ใถๆใฎๅณๆธ้คจใๆงใใฆใใใใใใใฎๅณๆธ้คจใฏๅ จ็ฑณใฎไปใฎใซใผใใฎใผๅณๆธ้คจๅๆงใใขใณใใชใฅใผใปใซใผใใฎใผใ็ง่ฒกใๆใใฆ่จญ็ซใใใใฎใงใใใใใใใใผใฐใปใซใผใใฎใผๅณๆธ้คจใทในใใ ใฎ่ตๆธๆฐใฏ650ไธๅใ่ถ ใใๅ จ็ฑณใงใๆๆฐใฎ่ฆๆจกใงใใ[53]ใ
ๆๅ
็ทจ้19ไธ็ดใใ20ไธ็ดใซใใใฆใๅฐๅ ใฎๅฎๆฅญๅฎถใ้ๅถๅฉ็ต็นใฏใใใใใผใฐใฎๅฐใซๆ่ฒๆฉ้ขใๆๅๆฝ่จญใ้ ใใใใซไฝ็พไธใใซใซใใใใถๅทจ้กใฎๅฏไปใใใฆใใใใใฎใใใใใใใใผใฐใฏ่ธ่กใปๆๅ่ณ็ฃใฎ่ฑใใช่กใซใชใฃใใ
ๆผๆ่ธ่ก
็ทจ้
|
| |
ใใคใณใใปใใผใซ
|
ใใใใ ใปใปใณใฟใผ
|
้ณๆฅฝใซใใใฆใฏใใขใกใชใซๆๆฐใฎใชใผใฑในใใฉใจใใฆ็ฅใใใใใใใใผใฐไบค้ฟๆฅฝๅฃใใใใๅๆฅฝๅฃใฏ1895ๅนดใซ่จญ็ซใใใ1910ๅนดใซไธๆฆ่งฃๆฃใใใใฎใฎใ1926ๅนดใซๅ็ตๆใใใใ1938ๅนดใใ10ๅนด้้ณๆฅฝ็ฃ็ฃใๅใใใใชใใใปใฉใคใใผใซใใฃใฆๆฅฝๅฃใฏๅคง็บๅฑใ้ใใใใฎๅๅฃฐใฏไธ็็ใชใใฎใจใชใฃใใใใฎๅพใใฆใฃใชใขใ ใปในใฟใคใณใใผใฐใ24ๅนด้ใซๆธกใฃใฆ้ณๆฅฝ็ฃ็ฃใจใใฆๅๆฅฝๅฃใๆๅฐใใๆฐดๆบใ็ถญๆใใใใใใซใใขใณใใฌใปใใฌใดใฃใณใใญใชใณใปใใผใผใซใใใชในใปใคใณใฝใณในใจใใฃใ่ๅๆๆฎ่ ใๆญดไปฃใฎ้ณๆฅฝ็ฃ็ฃใๅใใฆใใใ
ใใใใใผใฐไบค้ฟๆฅฝๅฃใฏใใคใณใใปใใผใซใใใใใใใผใฐใปใใฌใจใปใทใขใฟใผใจใใใใใผใฐใปใชใใฉใฏใใใใ ใปใปใณใฟใผใใใใใๆฌๆ ใจใใฆใใใใใคใณใใปใใผใซใฏใใใจใฏ1927ๅนดใซๅปบใฆใใใใญใฆใบใปใใณใปใทใขใฟใผใจใใๆ ็ป้คจใงใใฃใใใใใ1960ๅนดไปฃใซ็ตๅถใๆชๅใใใจใใคใณใใฎ็คพ้ทใใณใชใผใปJใปใใคใณใ2ไธใใๆ ็ป้คจใจใใฎๆทๅฐใ่ฒทใๅใฃใฆๆน่ฃ ใใ1971ๅนดใซๆผๆ่ธ่กๅ จ่ฌใฎๅ ฌๆผใๅฌใๅๅ ดใจใใฆๅ็ใใใใใฎๅๅ ดใซใใคใณใใฎๅใๅ ใใใใ[54]ใไธๆนใใใใใ ใปใปใณใฟใผใฏใ1928ๅนดใซในใฟใณใฌใผใปใทใขใฟใผใจใใๆ ็ป้คจใจใใฆๅปบใฆใใใ1977ๅนดใใ1982ๅนดใพใงใญใใฏใฎใฉใคใใใฆในใจใใฆไฝฟ็จใใใๅพใ1987ๅนดใซๅๅ ดใจใใฆๅ็ใใใใใฎใงใใ[55]ใใใใใ ใปใปใณใฟใผใฏ1986ๅนดใซใใในใฟใณใฌใผใปใทใขใฟใผใใใณใฏใฉใผใฏใปใใซใใฃใณใฐใใจใใฆๅฝๅฎถๆญดๅฒ็ป้ฒ่ฒกใซๆๅฎใใใ[56]ใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๆๅๅฐๅบใซ็ซๅฐใใใใใใฎๅๅ ดใงใฏใใฎใปใใใชใใผใปใทใใฃใปใใฉในใใณใใใใใใใผใฐ้ๅฐๅนดไบค้ฟๆฅฝๅฃใชใฉใฎๅ ฌๆผใ่กใใใฆใใใ
ๅคงๅญฆใใใใใใผใฐใฎๆผๆ่ธ่กใฎๆฏ่ใซ่ฒข็ฎใใฆใใใใใฅใฑใคใณๅคงๅญฆใฎๅญฆ็ใงๆงๆใใใๅๅญฆใฎๅคๆๅๆผๆ่ธ่กๅฃไฝใใฟใณใใชใใกใณใบ๏ผTamburitzans๏ผใฏใ็นใซๆฑๆฌงใฎๆญ่ฌกใ่่ธใไธญๅฟใจใใๅ ฌๆผใ่กใฃใฆใใ[57]ใใใคใณใใใผใฏๅคงๅญฆใฏใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใซใใใใใผใฐใปใใฌใคใใฆในใจใใๅๅ ดใๆใใฆใใใใใฎๅๅ ดใงใฏใถใปใฌใใ๏ผThe REP๏ผใจใใใใญใฎๆผๆ่ธ่กๅฃไฝใฎใปใใๅๅญฆใฎๅญฆ็ใงๆงๆใใใๆผๆ่ธ่กๅฃไฝ3ใคใๆฌๆ ใจใใฆๅ ฌๆผใ่กใฃใฆใใ[58]ใ
็พ่ก้คจใปๅ็ฉ้คจ
็ทจ้
้้ผ็ใขใณใใชใฅใผใปใซใผใใฎใผใฏ็พ่ก้คจใๅ็ฉ้คจใซใใใฎ่ฒกใๆใใใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใซ็ซๅฐใใใซใผใใฎใผใปใคใณในใใฃใใฅใผใ๏ผใซใผใใฎใผ็ ็ฉถๆใจใฏ็ฐใชใ๏ผใฏใใซใผใใฎใผ็พ่ก้คจใใซใผใใฎใผ่ช็ถๅฒๅ็ฉ้คจใใใใใใผใฐใปใซใผใใฎใผๅณๆธ้คจๆฌ้คจใใใใณใซใผใใฎใผ้ณๆฅฝใใผใซใ1ใคใฎๆฝ่จญใฎไธญใซๅ ฅใฃใ่คๅๆๅๆฝ่จญใงใใใ
1895ๅนดใซ้้คจใใใซใผใใฎใผ็พ่ก้คจใฏ่ฟ็พไปฃ็พ่กไฝๅใฎใณใฌใฏใทใงใณใง็ฅใใใฆใใใๅ ใใฆใๅ้คจใฏ19ไธ็ดไปฅ้ใฎใขใกใชใซ็พ่กไฝๅใใใฉใณในใฎๅฐ่ฑกๆดพใปใในใๅฐ่ฑกๆดพใฎไฝๅใใใใณ17ไธ็ดๅพๆไปฅ้ใฎใจใผใญใใใปใขใกใชใซใฎ่ฃ ้ฃพ่ธ่กไฝๅใๅฑ็คบใใฆใใใใพใใๅ้คจใซใฏๅปบ็ฏใๅฝซๅปใซ็นๅใใๅฑ็คบในใใผในใ่จญใใใใฆใใ[59]ใ1896ๅนดใซ้้คจใใใซใผใใฎใผ่ช็ถๅฒๅ็ฉ้คจใฏๆ็ซใฎใณใฌใฏใทใงใณใง็ฅใใใใใฎ้ใฏใฏใทใณใใณD.C.ใฎๅฝ็ซ่ช็ถๅฒๅ็ฉ้คจใใใฅใผใจใผใฏใฎใขใกใชใซ่ช็ถๅฒๅ็ฉ้คจใซๆฌกใๅ จ็ฑณ็ฌฌ3ใฎใใฎใงใใใ
1991ๅนดใซ้้คจใใใใใผในใปใทใงใขๅฐๅบใซ็ซๅฐใใใซใผใใฎใผ็งๅญฆใปใณใฟใผใฏใใขใกใชใซๅ่กๅฝๆตท่ปใฎๆฝๆฐด่ฆใฌใฏใฅใคใณใชใฉใๆ่กใซ็นๅใใๅฑ็คบ็ฉใๅฑ็คบใใฆใใใๅใใใใผในใปใทใงใขๅฐๅบใซ็ซๅฐใใใขใณใใฃใปใฆใฉใผใใซ็พ่ก้คจใฏใใฎๅใ็คบใ้ใใใใใใใผใฐใ็ใใ ใใใใขใผใใฎๆๆใใขใณใใฃใปใฆใฉใผใใซใฎไฝๅใๅฑ็คบใใฆใใใๅ้คจใฏใ1ไบบใฎ่ธ่กๅฎถใซ็นๅใใ็พ่ก้คจใจใใฆใฏๅ จ็ฑณๆๅคงใฎใใฎใงใใ[60]ใ
ใขใณใใชใฅใผใปใซใผใใฎใผใๅปบใฆใใใใใใฏใซใผใใฎใผใปใคใณในใใฃใใฅใผใใ่จญ็ซใซ้ขไธใใใซใผใใฎใผ็พ่ก้คจใใซใผใใฎใผ่ช็ถๅฒๅ็ฉ้คจใใซใผใใฎใผ็งๅญฆใปใณใฟใผใใขใณใใฃใปใฆใฉใผใใซ็พ่ก้คจใฎ4ใคใฎ็พ่ก้คจใปๅ็ฉ้คจใฏใใพใจใใฆใใซใผใใฎใผใปใใฅใผใธใขใ ใบใปใชใใปใใใใใผใฐใใจๅผใฐใใฆใใใ
ใใใใฎ็พ่ก้คจใปๅ็ฉ้คจใฎใปใใซใฏใใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ ใซใฏใใชใใฏ่ธ่กใปๆญดๅฒใปใณใฟใผใใใใใใผใฐ่ธ่กใปใณใฟใผใใใใใฌในใปใใกใฏใใชใผใชใฉใฎ็พ่ก้คจใใใใใใใใใผใฐ่ธ่กๅบญๅใฏใ้ ๅๆ่กใซ่ธ่กๆงใๆใใใๅฑ็คบใใใใจใ็ฎ็ใจใใ้ๅค็พ่ก้คจใงใใใในใใชใใๅฐๅบใซใฏใธใงใณใปใใคใณใไธ้ข่ญฐๅกใใใใใผใฐๅฐๅๆญดๅฒใปใณใฟใผใ่ฅฟใใณใทใซใใใขใปในใใผใๅ็ฉ้คจใ็ซๅฐใใฆใใใใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๅๆฑ็ด10kmใใชใใฉใปใฟใฆใณใทใใใฎไธใฎไธใซใฏใใใคใใฎ่ฑช้ธใฎใใใชๅค่ฆณใใใใใคใจใซใณใใ้ณๆฅฝๅ็ฉ้คจใๅปบใฃใฆใใ[61]ใ
ในใใผใ
็ทจ้ใใใใใผใฐใซใฏMLBใNFLใNBAใNHLใฎๅ็ฑณ4ๅคงใใญในใใผใใชใผใฐใฎใใกใNBAใ้คใ3ใชใผใฐใใใผใ ใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใใพใใMLBใฎใใใใใผใฐใปใใคใฌใผใใNFLใฎใใใใใผใฐใปในใใฃใผใฉใผใบใNHLใฎใใใใใผใฐใปใใณใฎใณใบใฏใในใฆใใใผใ ใซใฉใผใๅธใฎๅ ฌๅผ่ฒใงใใ้ปใจ้่ฒใซใใฆใใใ
ใใคใฌใผใใฏ1882ๅนดใซๅต่จญใใใใขใกใชใซใณใปใขใฝใทใจใผใทใงใณใฎๅๆใกใณใใผใจใใฆๅ ใใฃใฆไปฅๆฅๅญ็ถใใฆใใใ5ๅบฆใฎใฏใผใซใใทใชใผใบๅชๅ็ต้จใๆใคใ้ทใไผ็ตฑใจๅฎ็ธพใๆใใใใผใ ใงใใใ1887ๅนดใซใใทใงใใซใปใชใผใฐใซ็งป่กใใ1901ๅนดใซๅใฎใชใผใฐๅชๅใใพใ1909ๅนดใซใฏๅใฎใฏใผใซใใทใชใผใบๅถ่ฆใๆใใใใ1970ๅนดไปฃใฏ็นใซๅผทใใๆฑๅฐๅบ๏ผๅฝๆ๏ผใง6ๅบฆใฎๅฐๅบๅชๅใๆใใใใใฎใใก1971ๅนดใป1979ๅนดใซใฏใฏใผใซใใทใชใผใบใงใๅชๅใใใใใใ1980ๅนดไปฃใซๅ ฅใใจใใผใ ใฏไฝ่ฟทใใ1990ๅนดใใ1992ๅนดใพใง3ๅนด้ฃ็ถใงๅฐๅบๅชๅใใใใฎใฎใใใใใชใผใฐๅชๅๆฑบๅฎๆฆใงๆใใฆใใใใใใซ1993ๅนดใใ2012ๅนดใซใใใฆใฏ20ๅนด้ฃ็ถ่ฒ ใ่ถใใฎใกใธใฃใผใชใผใฐใฏใผในใ่จ้ฒใไฝใใชใฉ[62][63]ใใฏใผใซใใใฃใณใใชใณใฏใใใใชใผใฐๅชๅใใใ้ ใใใฃใฆใใใใใคใฌใผใใฏ1970ๅนดใใ2000ๅนดใพใงใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใซๅปบใฃใฆใใในใชใผใปใชใใผในใปในใฟใธใขใ ใในใใฃใผใฉใผใบใจๅ ฑ็จใใฆใใใใ2001ๅนดไปฅ้ใฏ้็ๅฐ็จในใฟใธใขใ ใจใใฆใใผในใปใทใงใขๅฐๅบใซๅปบใฆใใใPNCใใผใฏใใใผใ ใจใใฆใใใ
ในใใฃใผใฉใผใบใฏ1933ๅนดใซๅต่จญใใใใ็พๅญใใNFLใฎใใผใ ใฎไธญใงใฏ5็ช็ฎใซ้ทใๆญดๅฒใๆใคใใผใ ใงใใ[64]ใในใใฃใผใฉใผใบใฏ1970ๅนดไปฃใซใฏTeam of the Decadeใจๅผใฐใใ้ป้ๆไปฃใ่ฌณๆญใใใใใฎ้ใใใผใ ใฏ1972ๅนดใซๅฐๅบๅชๅใใใใซ1974ๅนดใใ1979ๅนดใพใงใฏ6ๅนด้ฃ็ถใงๅฐๅบๅชๅใใใใฎใใก1974ๅนดใ1975ๅนดใ1978ๅนดใ1979ๅนดใจ4ๅใฎในใผใใผใใฆใซๅถ่ฆใๆใใใ[65]ใ1980ๅนดไปฃใซใฏๅนณๅกใชใทใผใบใณใๅคใใฃใใใฎใฎใ1990ๅนดไปฃใใ2000ๅนดไปฃใซใใใฆใใผใ ใฏไธไฝใซๅ ฅใใใจใๅคใใชใใ2005ๅนดใซใฏ5ๅบฆ็ฎใใใใซ2008ๅนดใซใฏNFLๅฒไธๆๅคใจใชใ6ๅบฆ็ฎใฎในใผใใผใใฆใซๅถ่ฆใๆใใใ[66]ใใพใใในใใฃใผใฉใผใบใฏใใชใใซใฟใชใซใจๅผใฐใใ้ป่ฒใใฟใชใซใๆฏใๅใใใกใณใฎๅฟๆดในใฟใคใซใงใ็ฅใใใฆใใใในใใฃใผใฉใผใบใฏ2001ๅนดใซใใใใใผใซๅฐ็จในใฟใธใขใ ใจใใฆใใผในใปใทใงใขๅฐๅบใซๅปบใฆใใใใขใฏใชใทใฅใขใปในใฟใธใขใ ใใใผใ ใจใใฆใใใ
ใใณใฎใณใบใฏ1967ๅนดใฎNHLใจใฏในใใณใทใงใณใฎ้ใซๅต่จญใใใใใใใใใจใฏในใใณใทใงใณใปใทใใฏในใจๅผใฐใใใใผใ ใฎใใกใฎ1ใคใงใใใ1970ๅนดไปฃใ1980ๅนดไปฃใซใฏไธไฝใซๆฒใใทใผใบใณใๅคใใฃใใใ1991ๅนดใ1992ๅนดใจในใฟใณใฌใผใปใซใใ2้ฃ่ฆใๆใใใ2009ๅนดใซใในใฟใณใฌใผใปใซใใใๅถใใ2016ๅนดใ2017ๅนดใซใในใฟใณใฌใผใปใซใใ2้ฃ่ฆใๆใใใใใใณใฎใณใบใฏใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๆฑ็ซฏใซ็ซๅฐใใใใใใพใงใฎใกใญใณใปใขใชใผใใซไปฃใใ็ซถๆๅ ดใจใใฆๅปบ่จญใใใ2010ๅนดใซ้ๅ ดใใPPGใใคใณใใปใขใชใผใใๆฌๆ ๅฐใจใใฆใใ[67]ใ
| ใใใใใผใฐใซใใใใกใธใฃใผใปใใญในใใผใ | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| ใใผใ | ในใใผใ | ใชใผใฐ | ๆฌๆ ๅฐ |
| ใใใใใผใฐใปใใคใฌใผใ | ้็ | MLBใใใปใชใผใฐไธญๅฐๅบ | PNCใใผใฏ |
| ใใใใใผใฐใปในใใฃใผใฉใผใบ | ใใใใใผใซ | NFLใAFCๅๅฐๅบ | ใขใฏใชใทใฅใขใปใใฃใผใซใ |
| ใใใใใผใฐใปใใณใฎใณใบ | ใขใคในใใใฑใผ | NHLใๆฑใซใณใใกใฌใณใน ใกใใญใใชใฟใณๅฐๅบ | PPGใใคใณใใปใขใชใผใ |
| ใใใใใผใฐใปใชใใผใใฆใณใบSC | ใตใใซใผ | USLใใฃใณใใชใณใทใใใๆฑใซใณใใกใฌใณใน | ใใคใใผใฏใปในใฟใธใขใ |
ใพใใใใใใฎใกใธใฃใผใปใใญในใใผใใจไธฆใใงใใใใใใผใฐๅคงๅญฆใฎในใใผใใใผใ ใใใณใตใผใบใใใใใใผใฐใงใฏ้่ฆใงใใใใใณใตใผใบใฏNCAAใฎใใฃใใธใงใณIใซๅฑใใใใใฐใปใคใผในใใปใซใณใใกใฌใณในใซๆๅฑใใฆใใใๅใซใณใใกใฌใณในใซใฏใใฃใใธใงใณIๆๅคใฎ16ใใผใ ๏ผใใ ใใใใใใผใซใฏ8ใใผใ ๏ผใๅ ๅ ฅใใฆใใใ็นใซ็ทๅญใในใฑใใใใผใซใซใใใฆๆฟๆฆๅบใจใใฆ็ฅใใใฆใใใใใณใตใผใบใฎใใใใใผใซใใผใ ใฏใขใฏใชใทใฅใขใปใใฃใผใซใใใใในใฑใใใใผใซใใผใ ใฏใญใฃใณใในๅ ใฎใใผใฟใผใปใณใปใคใใณใใปใปใณใฟใผใใใผใ ใจใใฆใใใ
ใใใซUSFLใฎใใใใใผใฐใปใขใผใฉใผใบใๆฌๆ ๅฐใ็ฝฎใใ(2022ๅนด-2023ๅนด)ใ
ๅ ฌๅใจใฌใฏใชใจใผใทใงใณ
็ทจ้ใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎ่ฅฟ็ซฏใใขใฌใฒใใผๅทใจใขใใณใฌใใฉๅทใฎๅๆต็น่ฟใใฏใใคใณใๅท็ซๅ ฌๅใซใจใใฆๆดๅใใใฆใใใๅๅ ใซใฏใใใใใผใฐใซ็พๅญใใๆๅคใฎๅปบ็ฏ็ฉใใใใ็ ฆใฎๅฐ่ฆๅก่ทกใๆฎใฃใฆใใใๅๆต็นใซใฏๅ ฌๅใฎไธใๆตใใไผๆตๆฐดใใๅๆฐดใใๅฐไธใใ45.7mใฎ้ซใใพใงๆฐดใๅดใไธใใๅดๆฐดใ่จญใใใใฆใใ[68]ใใใฎๅ ฌๅใฏใใฆใณใฟใฆใณใฎๅดๅ่ ใไฝๆฐใฎๆฉใใฎๅ ดใจใชใฃใฆใใใปใใใใใใใผใฐใฎ่ฆณๅ ๅๆใฎ1ใคใซใใชใฃใฆใใใใพใใใใฎๅ ฌๅใงใฏๆฏๅนด6ๆใซในใชใผใปใชใใผใบ่ธ่ก็ฅญใใใพใๆฏๅนด7ๆใซใฏ็ฌ็ซ่จๅฟตๆฅใฎ่ฑ็ซๅคงไผใๅ ผใญใใปใใในใชใผใปใชใใผใบใปใฌใฌใใฟใจใใใใผใใฎๅคงไผใ้ใใใใ
ๅธใฎๆฑ้จใซใฏใใชใผใฏใฉใณใๅฐๅบใจในใฏใฆใฃใฉใซใปใใซๅฐๅบใซใพใใใใ็ด1,845,000mยฒใฎๆทๅฐใๆใใใทใงใณใฌใผใปใใผใฏใใใใใใฎๅ ฌๅใฏใซใผใใฎใผใกใญใณๅคงๅญฆใฎใญใฃใณใในใฎๅใใใใใใผใฐๅคงๅญฆใฎใญใฃใณใในใฎๅๆฑใซ้ฃๆฅใใฆใใใๅ ฌๅใฎๅ ฅๅฃใซใใใใทใงใณใฌใผใปใใฉใถใซใฏๅบญๅใใใผใในใฟใณใใใพใๅฎถๆ้ฃใๅใใซใใฏใใชใข็ๆๆไปฃใฎใกใชใผใดใผใฉใณใใ่จญใใใใฆใใใๅๅ ใซใฏใใฃใใในๆธฉๅฎคใปๆค็ฉๅใ็ซๅฐใใฆใใใใพใใใใฎๅ ฌๅใซใฏในใใผใๆฝ่จญใๅ ๅฎใใฆใใใใใคใญใณใฐใณใผในใ13้ขใฎใใในใณใผใใๅ จๅคฉๅๅใฎ้ธไธ็ซถๆๅ ดใใตใใซใผๅ ดใใขใคในในใฑใผใใชใณใฏใในใคใใณใฐใใผใซใ18ใใผใซใฎใดใซใใณใผในใใใใณ18ใใผใซใฎใใฃในใฏใดใซใใณใผในใใใใ
ใพใใๅๆฑ้ใฎใฆใงในใใใใชใณใซใฏใฑใใผใฆใใใจใใ้ๅๅฐใ็ซๅฐใใฆใใใ1898ๅนดใซ้ๅใใใใฎ้ๅๅฐใฏใๅฝๅฎถๆญดๅฒ็ป้ฒ่ฒกใซ็ป้ฒใใใฆใใใๅ จ็ฑณใง2ๅใใใชใ้ๅๅฐใฎ1ใคใงใใ[69]ใใฑใใผใฆใใใฏ้ๅไปฅๆฅ2007ๅนดใพใงๅฎถๆ็ตๅถใงใใฃใใใใใไปฅ้ใฏไธ็็ใซไบๆฅญใๅฑ้ใใฆใใใใใชใผใใฎ้ๅๅฐ็ตๅถไผ็คพใใใผใฏในใปใฌใฆใใใน็คพใซใใฃใฆ็ตๅถใใใฆใใ[70]ใ
ไบบๅฃๅๆ
็ทจ้
้ฝๅธๅไบบๅฃ
็ทจ้ใใใใใผใฐใฎ้ฝๅธๅใใใใณๅบๅ้ฝๅธๅใๅฝขๆใใๅ้กใฎไบบๅฃใฏไปฅไธใฎ้ใใงใใ๏ผ2020ๅนดๅฝๅข่ชฟๆป๏ผ[2]ใ
- ใใใใใผใฐ้ฝๅธๅ
| ้ก | ๅท | ไบบๅฃ |
|---|---|---|
| ใขใซใฒใคใใผ้ก | ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท | 1,250,578ไบบ |
| ใฆใงในใใขใขใฉใณใ้ก | ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท | 354,663ไบบ |
| ใฏใทใณใใณ้ก | ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท | 209,349ไบบ |
| ใใใฉใผ้ก | ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท | 193,763ไบบ |
| ใใผใใผ้ก | ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท | 168,215ไบบ |
| ใใกใคใจใใ้ก | ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท | 128,804ไบบ |
| ใขใผใ ในใใญใณใฐ้ก | ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท | 65,558ไบบ |
| ๅ่จ | 2,370,930ไบบ | |
- ใใใใใผใฐใปใใฅใผใซใในใซใปใฆใฃใขใใณๅบๅ้ฝๅธๅ
| ้ฝๅธๅ/ๅฐ้ฝๅธๅ | ้ก | ๅท | ไบบๅฃ |
|---|---|---|---|
| ใใใใใผใฐ้ฝๅธๅ | 2,370,930ไบบ | ||
| ใฆใฃใขใใณใปในใใฅใผใใณใใซ้ฝๅธๅ | ใธใงใใกใผใฝใณ้ก | ใชใใคใชๅท | 65,249ไบบ |
| ใใณใณใใฏ้ก | ใฆใงในใใใผใธใใขๅท | 29,095ไบบ | |
| ใใซใใฏ้ก | ใฆใงในใใใผใธใใขๅท | 22,559ไบบ | |
| ใใฅใผใซใในใซๅฐ้ฝๅธๅ | ใญใผใฌใณใน้ก | ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท | 86,070ไบบ |
| ใคใณใใฃใขใๅฐ้ฝๅธๅ | ใคใณใใฃใขใ้ก | ใใณใทใซใใใขๅท | 83,246ไบบ |
| ๅ่จ | 2,657,149ไบบ | ||
ๅธๅไบบๅฃๆจ็งป
็ทจ้ไปฅไธใซใใใใใผใฐๅธใซใใใ1800ๅนดใใ2020ๅนดใพใงใฎไบบๅฃๆจ็งปใใฐใฉใใใใณ่กจใง็คบใ[71]ใ
| ็ตฑ่จๅนด | ไบบๅฃ | ้ ไฝ |
|---|---|---|
| 1800ๅนด | 1,565ไบบ | - |
| 1810ๅนด | 4,768ไบบ | 31ไฝ |
| 1820ๅนด | 7,248ไบบ | 23ไฝ |
| 1830ๅนด | 12,568ไบบ | 17ไฝ |
| 1840ๅนด | 21,115ไบบ | 17ไฝ |
| 1850ๅนด | 46,601ไบบ | 13ไฝ |
| 1860ๅนด | 49,221ไบบ | 17ไฝ |
| 1870ๅนด | 86,076ไบบ | 16ไฝ |
| 1880ๅนด | 156,389ไบบ | 12ไฝ |
| 1890ๅนด | 238,617ไบบ | 13ไฝ |
| 1900ๅนด | 321,616ไบบ | 11ไฝ |
| 1910ๅนด | 533,905ไบบ | 8ไฝ |
| 1920ๅนด | 588,343ไบบ | 9ไฝ |
| 1930ๅนด | 669,817ไบบ | 10ไฝ |
| 1940ๅนด | 671,659ไบบ | 10ไฝ |
| 1950ๅนด | 676,806ไบบ | 12ไฝ |
| 1960ๅนด | 604,332ไบบ | 16ไฝ |
| 1970ๅนด | 520,117ไบบ | 24ไฝ |
| 1980ๅนด | 423,938ไบบ | 30ไฝ |
| 1990ๅนด | 369,879ไบบ | 40ไฝ |
| 2000ๅนด | 334,563ไบบ | 52ไฝ |
| 2010ๅนด | 305,704ไบบ | 59ไฝ |
| 2020ๅนด | 302,971ไบบ | 68ไฝ |
ๅงๅฆน้ฝๅธ
็ทจ้ใใใใใผใฐใฏไปฅไธ15้ฝๅธใจๅงๅฆน้ฝๅธๆๆบใ็ตใใงใใ[72]ใ
ๆญฆๆผขๅธ๏ผไธญ่ฏไบบๆฐๅ
ฑๅๅฝ๏ผ
ใชในใใฉใดใก๏ผใใงใณ๏ผ
ใใใใพๅธ๏ผๆฅๆฌใปๅผ็็๏ผ - ๅคงๅฎฎๅธใใใใใใผใฐใจๅงๅฆน้ฝๅธๆๆบใ็ตใใงใใใ
ใถใฐใฌใ๏ผใฏใญใขใใข๏ผ
ใถใผใซใใชใฅใใฑใณ๏ผใใคใ๏ผ
ใตใณใปใคใทใใญ๏ผใใซใฉใฐใข๏ผ
ใทใงใใฃใผใซใ๏ผใคใฎใชในใปใคใณใฐใฉใณใ๏ผ
ในใณใใจ๏ผใใฑใใใข๏ผ
ใฝใใฃใข๏ผใใซใฌใชใข๏ผ
ใใใณ๏ผใใใใ ๏ผ
ใใใใฃใฏ๏ผใฆใฏใฉใคใ๏ผ
ใใซใใช๏ผในใใคใณ๏ผ
ใใงใซใใณใใปใใปใฉใปใขใฉ๏ผใใฉใฐใขใค๏ผ
ใใฌใทใงใ๏ผในใญใใญใข๏ผ
ใใฟใณใตใน๏ผใญใฅใผใ๏ผ
่ๆณจ
็ทจ้ๆณจ้
็ทจ้- ^ ใใฉใผใในใในใณใใใฉใณใไบบใงใใฃใใใจใใใใใฎๅฐๅใฎburghใจใใ้จๅใฏใจใใฃใณใใฉใจๅๆงใซใใใใฉใใจ็บ้ณใใใใใจใๆๅณใใใใฎใงใใฃใใจ่ใใใใฆใใใ
ๅบๅ ธ
็ทจ้- ^ a b QuickFacts: Pittsburgh city, Pennsylvania. United States Census Bureau. 2020ๅนด.
- ^ a b QuickFacts. United States Census Bureau. 2020ๅนด.
- ^ How to Spell Pittsburgh Archived 2006ๅนด9ๆ28ๆฅ, at the Wayback Machine.. Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh.
- ^ ใใใจใซใปRใปใใใใชใฏ ใๆ ๅ ฑๆไปฃใฎๅฐๆฅ ใ็ๆงใจ้ฉๅฝใฎๆไปฃใใซใใใ็ฅ่ญใฎใใฏใใญใธใผใ ๆณๆฟๅคงๅญฆๅบ็ๅฑ 2011ๅนด p.206.
- ^ Pittsburgh Facts. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
- ^ Napsha, Joe. Growth of jobs locally bucks nationwide trend. Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. 2008ๅนด8ๆ2ๆฅ.
- ^ a b US to host next G20 world meeting. BBC. 2009ๅนด5ๆ28ๆฅ.
- ^ Blazina, Ed and Rich Lord. City to host global leaders for G-20 summit in September. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 2009ๅนด5ๆ29ๆฅ.
- ^ Riverfacts: Historical - General History Archived 2008ๅนด1ๆ11ๆฅ, at the Wayback Machine.. Friends of the Riverfront.
- ^ a b Historic Pittsburgh Chronology by Decade: 1717-1749. University of Pittsburgh. 2009ๅนด10ๆ2ๆฅ.
- ^ a b Lorant, Stefan. Pittsburgh, The Story of an American City. 5th Ed. Esselmont Books, LLC. 1999ๅนด. ISBN 0685920127.
- ^ How to Spell Pittsburgh Archived 2007ๅนด7ๆ6ๆฅ, at the Wayback Machine.. Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh.
- ^ Pittsburgh First, the Official Organ of The Chamber of Commerce of Pittsburgh. Chamber of Commerce of Pittsburgh. 1921ๅนด.
- ^ Ballou's Pictorial. 1857ๅนด2ๆ21ๆฅ.
- ^ Gibson, Campbell. Table 14. Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1910. U.S.Census Bureau. 1998ๅนด6ๆ15ๆฅ.
- ^ ไธๅท่ฟๅฒใ็ฐๅขๅฒๅนด่กจ ๆๆฒปใปๅคงๆญฃ็ทจ(1868-1926)ใp.389 ๆฒณๅบๆธๆฟๆฐ็คพ 2003ๅนด11ๆ30ๆฅๅ ๅ จๅฝๆธ่ช็ชๅท:20522067
- ^ ๅฏๆฌๅ็พใใใใใใผใฐๅธใซใใใใใทใผใณๆฟๆฒปใจๅธๆฟๆน้ฉ้ๅใ232-234้ ใ
- ^ ๅฏๆฌๅ็พใใใใใใผใฐๅธใซใใใใใทใผใณๆฟๆฒปใจๅธๆฟๆน้ฉ้ๅใ229-240้ ใ
- ^ ๅฏๆฌๅ็พใใใใใใผใฐๅธใซใใใใใทใผใณๆฟๆฒปใจๅธๆฟๆน้ฉ้ๅใ248-249้ ใ
- ^ ๅฏๆฌๅ็พใใใใใใผใฐๅธใซใใใใใทใผใณๆฟๆฒปใจๅธๆฟๆน้ฉ้ๅใ241-246้ ใ
- ^ ๅฏๆฌๅ็พใใใใใใผใฐๅธใซใใใใใทใผใณๆฟๆฒปใจๅธๆฟๆน้ฉ้ๅใ250-251้ ใ
- ^ Kalson, Sally. Cartoonist draws, fires a blank with Pittsburgh joke. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 2003ๅนด11ๆ19ๆฅ.
- ^ Gibson, Campbell. Table 18. Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places: 1950. U.S.Census Bureau. 1998ๅนด6ๆ15ๆฅ.
- ^ Google Earth. Google. 2009ๅนด.
- ^ a b Historical Weather for Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States of America. Weatherbase.com.
- ^ Map of City of Pittsburgh Neighborhoods. City of Pittsburgh.
- ^ Census: Pittsburgh Archived 2007ๅนด8ๆ10ๆฅ, at the Wayback Machine.. p.27. Department of City Planning, City of Pittsburgh. 2006ๅนด1ๆ.๏ผPDFใใกใคใซ๏ผ
- ^ Red Light to Green Light. The Pittsburgh Cultural Trust.
- ^ Press Release: American Eagle Outfitters Announces Pittsburgh's SouthSide Works Location As New Corporate Headquarters. Warrendale, Pennsylvania: American Eagle Outfitters, Inc. 2005ๅนด10ๆ21ๆฅ.
- ^ U.S. Steel Tower, Pittsburgh. Emporis Research.
- ^ One Mellon Center. Emporis Research.
- ^ One PPG Place. Emporis Research.
- ^ Fifth Avenue Place. Emporis Research.
- ^ One Oxford Centre. Emporis Research.
- ^ Gulf Building. Emporis Research.
- ^ Three Mellon Place. Emporis Research.
- ^ FreeMarkets Center. Emporis Research.
- ^ Cathedral of Learning. Emporis Research.
- ^ Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania - Transatlantic Cities Network Archived 2010ๅนด6ๆ19ๆฅ, at the Wayback Machine.. The German Marshall Fund of the United States.
- ^ City Council Archived 1998ๅนด12ๆ6ๆฅ, at the Wayback Machine.. City of Pittsburgh.
- ^ Roddy, Dennis B. Ravenstahl sworn in as Pittsburgh mayor. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 2006ๅนด9ๆ1ๆฅ.
- ^ Rotstein, Gary. Ravenstahl must run next year. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 2006ๅนด10ๆ13ๆฅ
- ^ Pittsburgh Elects Luke Ravenstahl As Mayor Again. WTAE. 2009ๅนด11ๆ4ๆฅ.
- ^ Fortune 500 2009: States: Pennsylvania Companies. Time Warner Company. 2009ๅนด5ๆ4ๆฅ.
ใชใใใใใใฎไผๆฅญใฎใใกใใใคใฉใณใใใณใณใณใฝใซใปใจใใธใผใฏใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ ใงใฏใชใใๅ่ฅฟ้ใฎใญใฃใใณใบใใผใฐใซๆฌ็คพใ็ฝฎใใฆใใใ - ^ Pittsburgh Int'l. (Form 5010 Archived 2015ๅนด9ๆ24ๆฅ, at the Wayback Machine.) Airport Master Record. Federal Aviation Administration. 2015ๅนด6ๆ25ๆฅ. 2015ๅนด8ๆ15ๆฅ้ฒ่ฆง.
- ^ US Airways cutting Pittsburgh service. Pittsburgh Business Times. Ctd by The Business Journal. 2007ๅนด10ๆ3ๆฅ.
- ^ Port Authority's Fixed Guideways System. Port Authority of Allegheny County.
- ^ Duquesne Incline. Society for the Preservation of the Duquesne Heights Incline. 2009ๅนด9ๆ8ๆฅ.
- ^ CMUๆฅๆฌๆ กใซใคใใฆ. ใซใผใใฎใผใกใญใณๅคงๅญฆๆฅๆฌๆ ก. ่ฒกๅฃๆณไบบใฒใใใๆ ๅ ฑๆ่ฒๆฉๆง.
- ^ Alberts, Robert C. Pitt: The Story of the University of Pittsburgh 1787-1987. Book One. p.1. University of Pittsburgh Press. 1987ๅนด. ISBN 0-8229-1150-7
- ^ UPMC Named to U.S. News & World Report Honor Roll of Americaโs Best Hospitals for the Ninth Time. Media Relations. University of Pittsburgh Medical Center.
- ^ District Overview. Pittsburgh Public Schools. 2009ๅนด.
- ^ Nation's Largest Libraries. Public Library Data Service: Statistical Report 98. Chicago: Public Library Association. 1998ๅนด. Qtd by LibrarySpot.
- ^ A History of Heinz Hall. Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra.
- ^ The Benedum Center for the Performing Arts Archived 2011ๅนด8ๆ7ๆฅ, at the Wayback Machine.. The Pittsburgh Cultural Trust.
- ^ National Resister of Historic Places: Weekly List Actions. p.27. National Park Service. 1986ๅนด3ๆ7ๆฅ.๏ผPDFใใกใคใซ๏ผ
- ^ Overview. Tamburitzans, Duquesne University.
- ^ Our Companies. Pittsburgh Playhouse, Point Park University.
- ^ History Archived 2008ๅนด10ๆ13ๆฅ, at the Wayback Machine.. Carnegie Museum of Art.
- ^ Vogel, Carol. Warhol Museum Head Announces Resignation. The New York Times. 1995ๅนด2ๆ7ๆฅ.
- ^ Home. Bayernhof Museum.
- ^ Pirates History. Pittsburgh Pirates.
- ^ Pirates guaranteed of record-breaking 17th consecutive losing season. ESPN. 2009ๅนด9ๆ7ๆฅ.
- ^ Steelers History. p.1. Pittsburgh Steelers.๏ผPDFใใกใคใซ๏ผ
- ^ Steelers History. p.4. Pittsburgh Steelers.๏ผPDFใใกใคใซ๏ผ
- ^ Holmes' grab secures Steelers' record sixth Super Bowl title. ESPN. 2009ๅนด2ๆ1ๆฅ.
- ^ Belko, Mark. New arena design takes its lumps. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. 2008ๅนด8ๆ9ๆฅ.
- ^ The Point: The Underground River. Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh.
- ^ Charleton, James H. National Register of Historic Places Inventory - Nomination Form: Kennywood Park. History Division, National Park Service. 1985ๅนด3ๆ.๏ผPDFใใกใคใซ๏ผ
ใชใใใใ1ใคใฏใใฅใผใจใผใฏๅ้ใใฆใงในใใใงในใฟใผ้กใฉใคใซ็ซๅฐใใใฉใคใปใใฌใคใฉใณใใงใใใ - ^ Parques de Atracciones. Parques Reunidos.
- ^ Gibson, Campbell. Population of the 100 Largest Cities and Other Urban Places in the United States: 1790 to 1990. US Census Bureau. 1998ๅนด6ๆ.
- ^ The Greater Pittsburgh Sister Cities Association. World Affairs Council of Pittsburgh.
ๅ่ๆ็ฎ
็ทจ้- ๅฏๆฌๅ็พใใใใใใผใฐๅธใซใใใใใทใผใณๆฟๆฒปใจๅธๆฟๆน้ฉ้ๅใใๆฉ็จฒ็ฐๅคงๅญฆๆฟๆฒป็ตๆธๅญฆ้่ชใ็ฌฌ600ๅทใๆฉ็จฒ็ฐๅคงๅญฆๆฟๆฒป็ตๆธๅญฆไผใ1989ๅนด10ๆใ228-253้ ใNAIDย 40003926462ใ
ๅค้จใชใณใฏ
็ทจ้
- City of Pittsburgh Government - ใใใใใผใฐๅธๅ ฌๅผใตใคใ
- Pittsburgh Convention and Visitors Bureau
- Historic Pittsburgh Maps Collection
- Port Authority of Allegheny County
- Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra
- Pittsburgh Opera
- Kennywood
- Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania - City-Data.com
- Pittsburgh, PA - Yahoo!Mapใฎๅฐๅณ
